This is gforth.info, produced by makeinfo version 4.2 from gforth.texi.

This manual is for Gforth (version 0.6.2, August 25, 2003), a fast and
portable implementation of the ANS Forth language

   Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2003 Free Software
Foundation, Inc.

     Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this
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     Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover texts
     being "A GNU Manual," and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a)
     below.  A copy of the license is included in the section entitled
     "GNU Free Documentation License."

     (a) The FSF's Back-Cover Text is: "You have freedom to copy and
     modify this GNU Manual, like GNU software.  Copies published by
     the Free Software Foundation raise funds for GNU development."
   
INFO-DIR-SECTION Software development
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Gforth: (gforth).             A fast interpreter for the Forth language.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY


File: gforth.info,  Node: Blocks,  Next: Other I/O,  Prev: Files,  Up: Words

Blocks
======

   When you run Gforth on a modern desk-top computer, it runs under the
control of an operating system which provides certain services.  One of
these services is FILE SERVICES, which allows Forth source code and
data to be stored in files and read into Gforth (*note Files::).

   Traditionally, Forth has been an important programming language on
systems where it has interfaced directly to the underlying hardware with
no intervening operating system. Forth provides a mechanism, called
"blocks", for accessing mass storage on such systems.

   A block is a 1024-byte data area, which can be used to hold data or
Forth source code. No structure is imposed on the contents of the
block. A block is identified by its number; blocks are numbered
contiguously from 1 to an implementation-defined maximum.

   A typical system that used blocks but no operating system might use a
single floppy-disk drive for mass storage, with the disks formatted to
provide 256-byte sectors. Blocks would be implemented by assigning the
first four sectors of the disk to block 1, the second four sectors to
block 2 and so on, up to the limit of the capacity of the disk. The disk
would not contain any file system information, just the set of blocks.

   On systems that do provide file services, blocks are typically
implemented by storing a sequence of blocks within a single "blocks
file".  The size of the blocks file will be an exact multiple of 1024
bytes, corresponding to the number of blocks it contains. This is the
mechanism that Gforth uses.

   Only one blocks file can be open at a time. If you use block words
without having specified a blocks file, Gforth defaults to the blocks
file `blocks.fb'. Gforth uses the Forth search path when attempting to
locate a blocks file (*note Source Search Paths::).

   When you read and write blocks under program control, Gforth uses a
number of "block buffers" as intermediate storage. These buffers are
not used when you use `load' to interpret the contents of a block.

   The behaviour of the block buffers is analagous to that of a cache.
Each block buffer has three states:

   * Unassigned

   * Assigned-clean

   * Assigned-dirty

   Initially, all block buffers are unassigned. In order to access a
block, the block (specified by its block number) must be assigned to a
block buffer.

   The assignment of a block to a block buffer is performed by `block'
or `buffer'. Use `block' when you wish to modify the existing contents
of a block. Use `buffer' when you don't care about the existing
contents of the block(1).

   Once a block has been assigned to a block buffer using `block' or
`buffer', that block buffer becomes the current block buffer. Data may
only be manipulated (read or written) within the current block buffer.

   When the contents of the current block buffer has been modified it is
necessary, _before calling `block' or `buffer' again_, to either
abandon the changes (by doing nothing) or mark the block as changed
(assigned-dirty), using `update'. Using `update' does not change the
blocks file; it simply changes a block buffer's state to
assigned-dirty.  The block will be written implicitly when it's buffer
is needed for another block, or explicitly by `flush' or `save-buffers'.

   word `Flush' writes all assigned-dirty blocks back to the blocks
file on disk. Leaving Gforth with `bye' also performs a `flush'.

   In Gforth, `block' and `buffer' use a direct-mapped algorithm to
assign a block buffer to a block. That means that any particular block
can only be assigned to one specific block buffer, called (for the
particular operation) the victim buffer. If the victim buffer is
unassigned or assigned-clean it is allocated to the new block
immediately. If it is assigned-dirty its current contents are written
back to the blocks file on disk before it is allocated to the new block.

   Although no structure is imposed on the contents of a block, it is
traditional to display the contents as 16 lines each of 64 characters.
A block provides a single, continuous stream of input (for example, it
acts as a single parse area) - there are no end-of-line characters
within a block, and no end-of-file character at the end of a block.
There are two consequences of this:

   * The last character of one line wraps straight into the first
     character of the following line

   * The word `\' - comment to end of line - requires special
     treatment; in the context of a block it causes all characters
     until the end of the current 64-character "line" to be ignored.

   In Gforth, when you use `block' with a non-existent block number,
the current blocks file will be extended to the appropriate size and the
block buffer will be initialised with spaces.

   Gforth includes a simple block editor (type `use blocked.fb 0 list'
for details) but doesn't encourage the use of blocks; the mechanism is
only provided for backward compatibility - ANS Forth requires blocks to
be available when files are.

   Common techniques that are used when working with blocks include:

   * A screen editor that allows you to edit blocks without leaving the
     Forth environment.

   * Shadow screens; where every code block has an associated block
     containing comments (for example: code in odd block numbers,
     comments in even block numbers). Typically, the block editor
     provides a convenient mechanism to toggle between code and
     comments.

   * Load blocks; a single block (typically block 1) contains a number
     of `thru' commands which `load' the whole of the application.

   See Frank Sergeant's Pygmy Forth to see just how well blocks can be
integrated into a Forth programming environment.

`open-blocks'       c-addr u -         gforth       ``open-blocks''
   Use the file, whose name is given by c-addr u, as the blocks file.

`use'       "file" -         gforth       ``use''
   Use file as the blocks file.

`block-offset'       - addr         gforth       ``block-offset''
   User variable containing the number of the first block (default
since 0.5.0: 0).  Block files created with Gforth versions before 0.5.0
have the offset 1.  If you use these files you can: `1 offset !'; or
add 1 to every block number used; or prepend 1024 characters to the
file.

`get-block-fid'       - wfileid         gforth       ``get-block-fid''
   Return the file-id of the current blocks file. If no blocks file has
been opened, use `blocks.fb' as the default blocks file.

`block-position'       u -         block       ``block-position''
   Position the block file to the start of block u.

`list'       u -         block-ext       ``list''
   Display block u. In Gforth, the block is displayed as 16 numbered
lines, each of 64 characters.

`scr'       - a-addr         block-ext       ``s-c-r''
   `User' variable - a-addr is the address of a cell containing the
block number of the block most recently processed by `list'.

`block'       u - a-addr         block       ``block''
   If a block buffer is assigned for block u, return its start address,
a-addr. Otherwise, assign a block buffer for block u (if the assigned
block buffer has been `update'd, transfer the contents to mass
storage), read the block into the block buffer and return its start
address, a-addr.

`buffer'       u - a-addr         block       ``buffer''
   If a block buffer is assigned for block u, return its start address,
a-addr. Otherwise, assign a block buffer for block u (if the assigned
block buffer has been `update'd, transfer the contents to mass storage)
and return its start address, a-addr.  The subtle difference between
`buffer' and `block' mean that you should only use `buffer' if you
don't care about the previous contents of block u. In Gforth, this
simply calls `block'.

`empty-buffers'       -         block-ext       ``empty-buffers''
   Mark all block buffers as unassigned; if any had been marked as
assigned-dirty (by `update'), the changes to those blocks will be lost.

`empty-buffer'       buffer -         gforth       ``empty-buffer''

`update'       -         block       ``update''
   Mark the state of the current block buffer as assigned-dirty.

`updated?'       n - f         gforth       ``updated?''
   Return true if `updated' has been used to mark block n as
assigned-dirty.

`save-buffers'       -         block       ``save-buffers''
   Transfer the contents of each `update'd block buffer to mass
storage, then mark all block buffers as assigned-clean.

`save-buffer'       buffer -         gforth       ``save-buffer''

`flush'       -         block       ``flush''
   Perform the functions of `save-buffers' then `empty-buffers'.

`load'       i*x n - j*x         block       ``load''
   Save the current input source specification. Store n in `BLK', set
`>IN' to 0 and interpret. When the parse area is exhausted, restore the
input source specification.

`thru'       i*x n1 n2 - j*x         block-ext       ``thru''
   `load' the blocks n1 through n2 in sequence.

`+load'       i*x n - j*x         gforth       ``+load''
   Used within a block to load the block specified as the current block
+ n.

`+thru'       i*x n1 n2 - j*x         gforth       ``+thru''
   Used within a block to load the range of blocks specified as the
current block + n1 thru the current block + n2.

`-->'       -         gforth       ``chain''
   If this symbol is encountered whilst loading block n, discard the
remainder of the block and load block n+1. Used for chaining multiple
blocks together as a single loadable unit.  Not recommended, because it
destroys the independence of loading.  Use `thru' (which is standard)
or `+thru' instead.

`block-included'       a-addr u -         gforth       ``block-included''
   Use within a block that is to be processed by `load'. Save the
current blocks file specification, open the blocks file specified by
a-addr u and `load' block 1 from that file (which may in turn chain or
load other blocks). Finally, close the blocks file and restore the
original blocks file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The ANS Forth definition of `buffer' is intended not to cause
disk I/O; if the data associated with the particular block is already
stored in a block buffer due to an earlier `block' command, `buffer'
will return that block buffer and the existing contents of the block
will be available. Otherwise, `buffer' will simply assign a new, empty
block buffer for the block.


File: gforth.info,  Node: Other I/O,  Next: Locals,  Prev: Blocks,  Up: Words

Other I/O
=========

* Menu:

* Simple numeric output::       Predefined formats
* Formatted numeric output::    Formatted (pictured) output
* String Formats::              How Forth stores strings in memory
* Displaying characters and strings::  Other stuff
* Input::                       Input
* Pipes::                       How to create your own pipes


File: gforth.info,  Node: Simple numeric output,  Next: Formatted numeric output,  Prev: Other I/O,  Up: Other I/O

Simple numeric output
---------------------

   The simplest output functions are those that display numbers from the
data or floating-point stacks. Floating-point output is always displayed
using base 10. Numbers displayed from the data stack use the value
stored in `base'.

`.'       n -         core       ``dot''
   Display (the signed single number) N in free-format, followed by a
space.

`dec.'       n -         gforth       ``dec.''
   Display n as a signed decimal number, followed by a space.

`hex.'       u -         gforth       ``hex.''
   Display u as an unsigned hex number, prefixed with a "$" and
followed by a space.

`u.'       u -         core       ``u-dot''
   Display (the unsigned single number) U in free-format, followed by a
space.

`.r'       n1 n2 -         core-ext       ``dot-r''
   Display N1 right-aligned in a field N2 characters wide. If more than
N2 characters are needed to display the number, all digits are
displayed.  If appropriate, N2 must include a character for a leading
"-".

`u.r'       u n -         core-ext       ``u-dot-r''
   Display U right-aligned in a field N characters wide. If more than N
characters are needed to display the number, all digits are displayed.

`d.'       d -         double       ``d-dot''
   Display (the signed double number) D in free-format. followed by a
space.

`ud.'       ud -         gforth       ``u-d-dot''
   Display (the signed double number) UD in free-format, followed by a
space.

`d.r'       d n -         double       ``d-dot-r''
   Display D right-aligned in a field N characters wide. If more than N
characters are needed to display the number, all digits are displayed.
If appropriate, N must include a character for a leading "-".

`ud.r'       ud n -         gforth       ``u-d-dot-r''
   Display UD right-aligned in a field N characters wide. If more than
N characters are needed to display the number, all digits are displayed.

`f.'       r -         float-ext       ``f-dot''
   Display (the floating-point number) r without exponent, followed by
a space.

`fe.'       r -         float-ext       ``f-e-dot''
   Display r using engineering notation (with exponent dividable by 3),
followed by a space.

`fs.'       r -         float-ext       ``f-s-dot''
   Display r using scientific notation (with exponent), followed by a
space.

`f.rdp'       rf +nr +nd +np -         gforth       ``f.rdp''
   Print float rf formatted.  The total width of the output is nr.  For
fixed-point notation, the number of digits after the decimal point is
+nd and the minimum number of significant digits is np.
`Set-precision' has no effect on `f.rdp'.  Fixed-point notation is used
if the number of siginicant digits would be at least np and if the
number of digits before the decimal point would fit.  If fixed-point
notation is not used, exponential notation is used, and if that does not
fit, asterisks are printed.  We recommend using nr>=7 to avoid the risk
of numbers not fitting at all.  We recommend nr>=np+5 to avoid cases
where `f.rdp' switches to exponential notation because fixed-point
notation would have too few significant digits, yet exponential
notation offers fewer significant digits.  We recommend nr>=nd+2, if
you want to have fixed-point notation for some numbers.  We recommend
np>nr, if you want to have exponential notation for all numbers.

   Examples of printing the number 1234.5678E23 in the different
floating-point output formats are shown below:

     f. 123456779999999000000000000.
     fe. 123.456779999999E24
     fs. 1.23456779999999E26


File: gforth.info,  Node: Formatted numeric output,  Next: String Formats,  Prev: Simple numeric output,  Up: Other I/O

Formatted numeric output
------------------------

   Forth traditionally uses a technique called "pictured numeric
output" for formatted printing of integers.  In this technique, digits
are extracted from the number (using the current output radix defined by
`base'), converted to ASCII codes and appended to a string that is
built in a scratch-pad area of memory (*note Implementation-defined
options: core-idef.). Arbitrary characters can be appended to the
string during the extraction process. The completed string is specified
by an address and length and can be manipulated (`TYPE'ed, copied,
modified) under program control.

   All of the integer output words described in the previous section
(*note Simple numeric output::) are implemented in Gforth using pictured
numeric output.

   Three important things to remember about pictured numeric output:

   * It always operates on double-precision numbers; to display a
     single-precision number, convert it first (for ways of doing this
     *note Double precision::).

   * It always treats the double-precision number as though it were
     unsigned. The examples below show ways of printing signed numbers.

   * The string is built up from right to left; least significant digit
     first.

`<#'       -         core       ``less-number-sign''
   Initialise/clear the pictured numeric output string.

`<<#'       -         gforth       ``less-less-number-sign''
   Start a hold area that ends with `#>>'. Can be nested in each other
and in `<#'.  Note: if you do not match up the `<<#'s with `#>>'s, you
will eventually run out of hold area; you can reset the hold area to
empty with `<#'.

`#'       ud1 - ud2         core       ``number-sign''
   Used within `<#' and `#>'. Add the next least-significant digit to
the pictured numeric output string. This is achieved by dividing UD1 by
the number in `base' to leave quotient UD2 and remainder N; N is
converted to the appropriate display code (eg ASCII code) and appended
to the string. If the number has been fully converted, UD1 will be 0
and `#' will append a "0" to the string.

`#s'       ud - 0 0         core       ``number-sign-s''
   Used within `<#' and `#>'. Convert all remaining digits using the
same algorithm as for `#'. `#s' will convert at least one digit.
Therefore, if UD is 0, `#s' will append a "0" to the pictured numeric
output string.

`hold'       char -         core       ``hold''
   Used within `<#' and `#>'. Append the character CHAR to the pictured
numeric output string.

`sign'       n -         core       ``sign''
   Used within `<#' and `#>'. If N (a SINGLE number) is negative,
append the display code for a minus sign to the pictured numeric output
string. Since the string is built up "backwards" this is usually used
immediately prior to `#>', as shown in the examples below.

`#>'       xd - addr u         core       ``number-sign-greater''
   Complete the pictured numeric output string by discarding XD and
returning ADDR U; the address and length of the formatted string. A
Standard program may modify characters within the string.

`#>>'       -         gforth       ``number-sign-greater-greater''
   Release the hold area started with `<<#'.

`represent'       r c-addr u - n f1 f2        float       ``represent''

`f>str-rdp'       rf +nr +nd +np - c-addr nr         gforth       ``f>str-rdp''
   Convert rf into a string at c-addr nr.  The conversion rules and the
meanings of nr +nd np are the same as for `f.rdp'.  The result in in
the pictured numeric output buffer and will be destroyed by anything
destroying that buffer.

   doc-f>buf-rdp

Here are some examples of using pictured numeric output:

     : my-u. ( u -- )
       \ Simplest use of pns.. behaves like Standard u.
       0              \ convert to unsigned double
       <<#            \ start conversion
       #s             \ convert all digits
       #>             \ complete conversion
       TYPE SPACE     \ display, with trailing space
       #>> ;          \ release hold area
     
     : cents-only ( u -- )
       0              \ convert to unsigned double
       <<#            \ start conversion
       # #            \ convert two least-significant digits
       #>             \ complete conversion, discard other digits
       TYPE SPACE     \ display, with trailing space
       #>> ;          \ release hold area
     
     : dollars-and-cents ( u -- )
       0              \ convert to unsigned double
       <<#            \ start conversion
       # #            \ convert two least-significant digits
       [char] . hold  \ insert decimal point
       #s             \ convert remaining digits
       [char] $ hold  \ append currency symbol
       #>             \ complete conversion
       TYPE SPACE     \ display, with trailing space
       #>> ;          \ release hold area
     
     : my-. ( n -- )
       \ handling negatives.. behaves like Standard .
       s>d            \ convert to signed double
       swap over dabs \ leave sign byte followed by unsigned double
       <<#            \ start conversion
       #s             \ convert all digits
       rot sign       \ get at sign byte, append "-" if needed
       #>             \ complete conversion
       TYPE SPACE     \ display, with trailing space
       #>> ;          \ release hold area
     
     : account. ( n -- )
       \ accountants don't like minus signs, they use parentheses
       \ for negative numbers
       s>d            \ convert to signed double
       swap over dabs \ leave sign byte followed by unsigned double
       <<#            \ start conversion
       2 pick         \ get copy of sign byte
       0< IF [char] ) hold THEN \ right-most character of output
       #s             \ convert all digits
       rot            \ get at sign byte
       0< IF [char] ( hold THEN
       #>             \ complete conversion
       TYPE SPACE     \ display, with trailing space
       #>> ;          \ release hold area

   Here are some examples of using these words:

     1 my-u. 1
     hex -1 my-u. decimal FFFFFFFF
     1 cents-only 01
     1234 cents-only 34
     2 dollars-and-cents $0.02
     1234 dollars-and-cents $12.34
     123 my-. 123
     -123 my. -123
     123 account. 123
     -456 account. (456)


File: gforth.info,  Node: String Formats,  Next: Displaying characters and strings,  Prev: Formatted numeric output,  Up: Other I/O

String Formats
--------------

   Forth commonly uses two different methods for representing character
strings:

   * As a "counted string", represented by a c-addr. The char addressed
     by c-addr contains a character-count, n, of the string and the
     string occupies the subsequent n char addresses in memory.

   * As cell pair on the stack; c-addr u, where u is the length of the
     string in characters, and c-addr is the address of the first byte
     of the string.

   ANS Forth encourages the use of the second format when representing
strings.

`count'       c-addr1 - c-addr2 u        core       ``count''
   c-addr2 is the first character and u the length of the counted
string at c-addr1.

   For words that move, copy and search for strings see *Note Memory
Blocks::. For words that display characters and strings see *Note
Displaying characters and strings::.


File: gforth.info,  Node: Displaying characters and strings,  Next: Input,  Prev: String Formats,  Up: Other I/O

Displaying characters and strings
---------------------------------

   This section starts with a glossary of Forth words and ends with a
set of examples.

`bl'       - c-char         core       ``b-l''
   c-char is the character value for a space.

`space'       -         core       ``space''
   Display one space.

`spaces'       u -         core       ``spaces''
   Display N spaces.

`emit'       c -         core       ``emit''
   Display the character associated with character value c.

`toupper'       c1 - c2        gforth       ``toupper''
   If c1 is a lower-case character (in the current locale), c2 is the
equivalent upper-case character. All other characters are unchanged.

`."'       compilation 'ccc"' - ; run-time -         core       ``dot-quote''
   Compilation: Parse a string ccc delimited by a " (double quote). At
run-time, display the string. Interpretation semantics for this word
are undefined in ANS Forth. Gforth's interpretation semantics are to
display the string. This is the simplest way to display a string from
within a definition; see examples below.

`.('       compilation&interpretation "ccc<paren>" -         core-ext       ``dot-paren''
   Compilation and interpretation semantics: Parse a string ccc
delimited by a `)' (right parenthesis). Display the string. This is
often used to display progress information during compilation; see
examples below.

`.\"'       compilation 'ccc"' - ; run-time -         gforth       ``dot-backslash-quote''

`type'       c-addr u -         core       ``type''
   If U>0, display U characters from a string starting with the
character stored at C-ADDR.

`typewhite'       addr n -         gforth       ``typewhite''
   Like type, but white space is printed instead of the characters.

`cr'       -         core       ``c-r''
   Output a newline (of the favourite kind of the host OS).  Note that
due to the way the Forth command line interpreter inserts newlines, the
preferred way to use `cr' is at the start of a piece of text; e.g., `cr
." hello, world"'.

`at-xy'       u1 u2 -         facility       ``at-x-y''
   Position the cursor so that subsequent text output will take place
at column U1, row U2 of the display. (column 0, row 0 is the top
left-hand corner of the display).

`page'       -         facility       ``page''
   Clear the display and set the cursor to the top left-hand corner.

`S"'       compilation 'ccc"' - ; run-time - c-addr u         core,file       ``s-quote''
   Compilation: Parse a string ccc delimited by a `"' (double quote).
At run-time, return the length, u, and the start address, c-addr of the
string. Interpretation: parse the string as before, and return c-addr,
u. Gforth `allocate's the string. The resulting memory leak is usually
not a problem; the exception is if you create strings containing `S"'
and `evaluate' them; then the leak is not bounded by the size of the
interpreted files and you may want to `free' the strings.  ANS Forth
only guarantees one buffer of 80 characters, so in standard programs
you should assume that the string lives only until the next `s"'.

`s\"'       compilation 'ccc"' - ; run-time - c-addr u         gforth       ``s-backslash-quote''
   Like `S"', but translates C-like \-escape-sequences into single
characters.  See `\"-parse' for details.

`C"'       compilation "ccc<quote>" - ; run-time  - c-addr         core-ext       ``c-quote''
   Compilation: parse a string ccc delimited by a `"' (double quote).
At run-time, return c-addr which specifies the counted string ccc.
Interpretation semantics are undefined.

`char'       '<spaces>ccc' - c         core       ``char''
   Skip leading spaces. Parse the string ccc and return c, the display
code representing the first character of ccc.

`[Char]'       compilation '<spaces>ccc' - ; run-time - c         core       ``bracket-char''
   Compilation: skip leading spaces. Parse the string ccc. Run-time:
return c, the display code representing the first character of ccc.
Interpretation semantics for this word are undefined.

As an example, consider the following text, stored in a file `test.fs':

     .( text-1)
     : my-word
       ." text-2" cr
       .( text-3)
     ;
     
     ." text-4"
     
     : my-char
       [char] ALPHABET emit
       char emit
     ;

   When you load this code into Gforth, the following output is
generated:

     include test.fs <RET> text-1text-3text-4 ok

   * Messages `text-1' and `text-3' are displayed because `.(' is an
     immediate word; it behaves in the same way whether it is used
     inside or outside a colon definition.

   * Message `text-4' is displayed because of Gforth's added
     interpretation semantics for `."'.

   * Message `text-2' is not displayed, because the text interpreter
     performs the compilation semantics for `."' within the definition
     of `my-word'.

   Here are some examples of executing `my-word' and `my-char':

     my-word <RET> text-2
      ok
     my-char fred <RET> Af ok
     my-char jim <RET> Aj ok

   * Message `text-2' is displayed because of the run-time behaviour of
     `."'.

   * `[char]' compiles the "A" from "ALPHABET" and puts its display code
     on the stack at run-time. `emit' always displays the character
     when `my-char' is executed.

   * `char' parses a string at run-time and the second `emit' displays
     the first character of the string.

   * If you type `see my-char' you can see that `[char]' discarded the
     text "LPHABET" and only compiled the display code for "A" into the
     definition of `my-char'.


File: gforth.info,  Node: Input,  Next: Pipes,  Prev: Displaying characters and strings,  Up: Other I/O

Input
-----

   For ways of storing character strings in memory see *Note String
Formats::.

`key'       - char         core       ``key''
   Receive (but do not display) one character, CHAR.

`key?'       - flag         facility       ``key-question''
   Determine whether a character is available. If a character is
available, FLAG is true; the next call to `key' will yield the
character. Once `key?' returns true, subsequent calls to `key?' before
calling `key' or `ekey' will also return true.

`ekey'       - u         facility-ext       ``e-key''

`ekey?'       - flag         unknown       ``ekey?''

`ekey>char'       u - u false | c true         facility-ext       ``e-key-to-char''

`>number'       ud1 c-addr1 u1 - ud2 c-addr2 u2         core       ``to-number''
   Attempt to convert the character string C-ADDR1 U1 to an unsigned
number in the current number base. The double UD1 accumulates the
result of the conversion to form UD2. Conversion continues,
left-to-right, until the whole string is converted or a character that
is not convertable in the current number base is encountered (including
+ or -). For each convertable character, UD1 is first multiplied by the
value in `BASE' and then incremented by the value represented by the
character. C-ADDR2 is the location of the first unconverted character
(past the end of the string if the whole string was converted). U2 is
the number of unconverted characters in the string. Overflow is not
detected.

`>float'       c-addr u - flag        float       ``to-float''
   Actual stack effect: ( c_addr u - r t | f ).  Attempt to convert the
character string c-addr u to internal floating-point representation. If
the string represents a valid floating-point number r is placed on the
floating-point stack and flag is true. Otherwise, flag is false. A
string of blanks is a special case and represents the floating-point
number 0.

`accept'       c-addr +n1 - +n2         core       ``accept''
   Get a string of up to N1 characters from the user input device and
store it at C-ADDR.  N2 is the length of the received string. The user
indicates the end by pressing <RET>.  Gforth supports all the editing
functions available on the Forth command line (including history and
word completion) in `accept'.

`edit-line'       c-addr n1 n2 - n3         gforth       ``edit-line''
   edit the string with length N2 in the buffer C-ADDR N1, like
`accept'.

`pad'       - c-addr         core-ext       ``pad''
   C-ADDR is the address of a transient region that can be used as
temporary data storage. At least 84 characters of space is available.

`convert'       ud1 c-addr1 - ud2 c-addr2         core-ext       ``convert''
   OBSOLESCENT: superseded by `>number'.

`expect'       c-addr +n -         core-ext       ``expect''
   Receive a string of at most +n characters, and store it in memory
starting at c-addr. The string is displayed. Input terminates when the
<return> key is pressed or +n characters have been received. The normal
Gforth line editing capabilites are available. The length of the string
is stored in `span'; it does not include the <return> character.
OBSOLESCENT: superceeded by `accept'.

`span'       - c-addr         core-ext       ``span''
   `Variable' - c-addr is the address of a cell that stores the length
of the last string received by `expect'. OBSOLESCENT.


File: gforth.info,  Node: Pipes,  Prev: Input,  Up: Other I/O

Pipes
-----

   In addition to using Gforth in pipes created by other processes
(*note Gforth in pipes::), you can create your own pipe with
`open-pipe', and read from or write to it.

`open-pipe'       c-addr u wfam - wfileid wior        gforth       ``open-pipe''

`close-pipe'       wfileid - wretval wior        gforth       ``close-pipe''

   If you write to a pipe, Gforth can throw a `broken-pipe-error'; if
you don't catch this exception, Gforth will catch it and exit, usually
silently (*note Gforth in pipes::).  Since you probably do not want
this, you should wrap a `catch' or `try' block around the code from
`open-pipe' to `close-pipe', so you can deal with the problem yourself,
and then return to regular processing.

`broken-pipe-error'       - n         gforth       ``broken-pipe-error''
   the error number for a broken pipe


File: gforth.info,  Node: Locals,  Next: Structures,  Prev: Other I/O,  Up: Words

Locals
======

   Local variables can make Forth programming more enjoyable and Forth
programs easier to read. Unfortunately, the locals of ANS Forth are
laden with restrictions. Therefore, we provide not only the ANS Forth
locals wordset, but also our own, more powerful locals wordset (we
implemented the ANS Forth locals wordset through our locals wordset).

   The ideas in this section have also been published in M. Anton Ertl,
`Automatic Scoping of Local Variables
(http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/papers/ertl94l.ps.gz)', EuroForth '94.

* Menu:

* Gforth locals::
* ANS Forth locals::


File: gforth.info,  Node: Gforth locals,  Next: ANS Forth locals,  Prev: Locals,  Up: Locals

Gforth locals
-------------

   Locals can be defined with

     { local1 local2 ... -- comment }
   or
     { local1 local2 ... }

   E.g.,
     : max { n1 n2 -- n3 }
      n1 n2 > if
        n1
      else
        n2
      endif ;

   The similarity of locals definitions with stack comments is
intended. A locals definition often replaces the stack comment of a
word. The order of the locals corresponds to the order in a stack
comment and everything after the `--' is really a comment.

   This similarity has one disadvantage: It is too easy to confuse
locals declarations with stack comments, causing bugs and making them
hard to find. However, this problem can be avoided by appropriate coding
conventions: Do not use both notations in the same program. If you do,
they should be distinguished using additional means, e.g. by position.

   The name of the local may be preceded by a type specifier, e.g.,
`F:' for a floating point value:

     : CX* { F: Ar F: Ai F: Br F: Bi -- Cr Ci }
     \ complex multiplication
      Ar Br f* Ai Bi f* f-
      Ar Bi f* Ai Br f* f+ ;

   Gforth currently supports cells (`W:', `W^'), doubles (`D:', `D^'),
floats (`F:', `F^') and characters (`C:', `C^') in two flavours: a
value-flavoured local (defined with `W:', `D:' etc.) produces its value
and can be changed with `TO'. A variable-flavoured local (defined with
`W^' etc.)  produces its address (which becomes invalid when the
variable's scope is left). E.g., the standard word `emit' can be
defined in terms of `type' like this:

     : emit { C^ char* -- }
         char* 1 type ;

   A local without type specifier is a `W:' local. Both flavours of
locals are initialized with values from the data or FP stack.

   Currently there is no way to define locals with user-defined data
structures, but we are working on it.

   Gforth allows defining locals everywhere in a colon definition. This
poses the following questions:

* Menu:

* Where are locals visible by name?::
* How long do locals live?::
* Locals programming style::
* Locals implementation::


File: gforth.info,  Node: Where are locals visible by name?,  Next: How long do locals live?,  Prev: Gforth locals,  Up: Gforth locals

Where are locals visible by name?
.................................

   Basically, the answer is that locals are visible where you would
expect it in block-structured languages, and sometimes a little longer.
If you want to restrict the scope of a local, enclose its definition in
`SCOPE'...`ENDSCOPE'.

`scope'       compilation  - scope ; run-time  -         gforth       ``scope''

`endscope'       compilation scope - ; run-time  -         gforth       ``endscope''

   These words behave like control structure words, so you can use them
with `CS-PICK' and `CS-ROLL' to restrict the scope in arbitrary ways.

   If you want a more exact answer to the visibility question, here's
the basic principle: A local is visible in all places that can only be
reached through the definition of the local(1). In other words, it is
not visible in places that can be reached without going through the
definition of the local. E.g., locals defined in `IF'...`ENDIF' are
visible until the `ENDIF', locals defined in `BEGIN'...`UNTIL' are
visible after the `UNTIL' (until, e.g., a subsequent `ENDSCOPE').

   The reasoning behind this solution is: We want to have the locals
visible as long as it is meaningful. The user can always make the
visibility shorter by using explicit scoping. In a place that can only
be reached through the definition of a local, the meaning of a local
name is clear. In other places it is not: How is the local initialized
at the control flow path that does not contain the definition? Which
local is meant, if the same name is defined twice in two independent
control flow paths?

   This should be enough detail for nearly all users, so you can skip
the rest of this section. If you really must know all the gory details
and options, read on.

   In order to implement this rule, the compiler has to know which
places are unreachable. It knows this automatically after `AHEAD',
`AGAIN', `EXIT' and `LEAVE'; in other cases (e.g., after most
`THROW's), you can use the word `UNREACHABLE' to tell the compiler that
the control flow never reaches that place. If `UNREACHABLE' is not used
where it could, the only consequence is that the visibility of some
locals is more limited than the rule above says. If `UNREACHABLE' is
used where it should not (i.e., if you lie to the compiler), buggy code
will be produced.

`UNREACHABLE'       -         gforth       ``UNREACHABLE''

   Another problem with this rule is that at `BEGIN', the compiler does
not know which locals will be visible on the incoming back-edge. All
problems discussed in the following are due to this ignorance of the
compiler (we discuss the problems using `BEGIN' loops as examples; the
discussion also applies to `?DO' and other loops). Perhaps the most
insidious example is:
     AHEAD
     BEGIN
       x
     [ 1 CS-ROLL ] THEN
       { x }
       ...
     UNTIL

   This should be legal according to the visibility rule. The use of
`x' can only be reached through the definition; but that appears
textually below the use.

   From this example it is clear that the visibility rules cannot be
fully implemented without major headaches. Our implementation treats
common cases as advertised and the exceptions are treated in a safe
way: The compiler makes a reasonable guess about the locals visible
after a `BEGIN'; if it is too pessimistic, the user will get a spurious
error about the local not being defined; if the compiler is too
optimistic, it will notice this later and issue a warning. In the case
above the compiler would complain about `x' being undefined at its use.
You can see from the obscure examples in this section that it takes
quite unusual control structures to get the compiler into trouble, and
even then it will often do fine.

   If the `BEGIN' is reachable from above, the most optimistic guess is
that all locals visible before the `BEGIN' will also be visible after
the `BEGIN'. This guess is valid for all loops that are entered only
through the `BEGIN', in particular, for normal
`BEGIN'...`WHILE'...`REPEAT' and `BEGIN'...`UNTIL' loops and it is
implemented in our compiler. When the branch to the `BEGIN' is finally
generated by `AGAIN' or `UNTIL', the compiler checks the guess and
warns the user if it was too optimistic:
     IF
       { x }
     BEGIN
       \ x ?
     [ 1 cs-roll ] THEN
       ...
     UNTIL

   Here, `x' lives only until the `BEGIN', but the compiler
optimistically assumes that it lives until the `THEN'. It notices this
difference when it compiles the `UNTIL' and issues a warning. The user
can avoid the warning, and make sure that `x' is not used in the wrong
area by using explicit scoping:
     IF
       SCOPE
       { x }
       ENDSCOPE
     BEGIN
     [ 1 cs-roll ] THEN
       ...
     UNTIL

   Since the guess is optimistic, there will be no spurious error
messages about undefined locals.

   If the `BEGIN' is not reachable from above (e.g., after `AHEAD' or
`EXIT'), the compiler cannot even make an optimistic guess, as the
locals visible after the `BEGIN' may be defined later. Therefore, the
compiler assumes that no locals are visible after the `BEGIN'. However,
the user can use `ASSUME-LIVE' to make the compiler assume that the
same locals are visible at the BEGIN as at the point where the top
control-flow stack item was created.

`ASSUME-LIVE'       orig - orig         gforth       ``ASSUME-LIVE''

E.g.,
     { x }
     AHEAD
     ASSUME-LIVE
     BEGIN
       x
     [ 1 CS-ROLL ] THEN
       ...
     UNTIL

   Other cases where the locals are defined before the `BEGIN' can be
handled by inserting an appropriate `CS-ROLL' before the `ASSUME-LIVE'
(and changing the control-flow stack manipulation behind the
`ASSUME-LIVE').

   Cases where locals are defined after the `BEGIN' (but should be
visible immediately after the `BEGIN') can only be handled by
rearranging the loop. E.g., the "most insidious" example above can be
arranged into:
     BEGIN
       { x }
       ... 0=
     WHILE
       x
     REPEAT

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In compiler construction terminology, all places dominated by
the definition of the local.


File: gforth.info,  Node: How long do locals live?,  Next: Locals programming style,  Prev: Where are locals visible by name?,  Up: Gforth locals

How long do locals live?
........................

   The right answer for the lifetime question would be: A local lives at
least as long as it can be accessed. For a value-flavoured local this
means: until the end of its visibility. However, a variable-flavoured
local could be accessed through its address far beyond its visibility
scope. Ultimately, this would mean that such locals would have to be
garbage collected. Since this entails un-Forth-like implementation
complexities, I adopted the same cowardly solution as some other
languages (e.g., C): The local lives only as long as it is visible;
afterwards its address is invalid (and programs that access it
afterwards are erroneous).


File: gforth.info,  Node: Locals programming style,  Next: Locals implementation,  Prev: How long do locals live?,  Up: Gforth locals

Locals programming style
........................

   The freedom to define locals anywhere has the potential to change
programming styles dramatically. In particular, the need to use the
return stack for intermediate storage vanishes. Moreover, all stack
manipulations (except `PICK's and `ROLL's with run-time determined
arguments) can be eliminated: If the stack items are in the wrong
order, just write a locals definition for all of them; then write the
items in the order you want.

   This seems a little far-fetched and eliminating stack manipulations
is unlikely to become a conscious programming objective. Still, the
number of stack manipulations will be reduced dramatically if local
variables are used liberally (e.g., compare `max' (*note Gforth
locals::) with a traditional implementation of `max').

   This shows one potential benefit of locals: making Forth programs
more readable. Of course, this benefit will only be realized if the
programmers continue to honour the principle of factoring instead of
using the added latitude to make the words longer.

   Using `TO' can and should be avoided.  Without `TO', every
value-flavoured local has only a single assignment and many advantages
of functional languages apply to Forth. I.e., programs are easier to
analyse, to optimize and to read: It is clear from the definition what
the local stands for, it does not turn into something different later.

   E.g., a definition using `TO' might look like this:
     : strcmp { addr1 u1 addr2 u2 -- n }
      u1 u2 min 0
      ?do
        addr1 c@ addr2 c@ -
        ?dup-if
          unloop exit
        then
        addr1 char+ TO addr1
        addr2 char+ TO addr2
      loop
      u1 u2 - ;
   Here, `TO' is used to update `addr1' and `addr2' at every loop
iteration. `strcmp' is a typical example of the readability problems of
using `TO'. When you start reading `strcmp', you think that `addr1'
refers to the start of the string. Only near the end of the loop you
realize that it is something else.

   This can be avoided by defining two locals at the start of the loop
that are initialized with the right value for the current iteration.
     : strcmp { addr1 u1 addr2 u2 -- n }
      addr1 addr2
      u1 u2 min 0
      ?do { s1 s2 }
        s1 c@ s2 c@ -
        ?dup-if
          unloop exit
        then
        s1 char+ s2 char+
      loop
      2drop
      u1 u2 - ;
   Here it is clear from the start that `s1' has a different value in
every loop iteration.

