This is ecldev.info, produced by makeinfo version 4.8 from
/usr/obj/ports/ecl-8.12.0/ecl-8.12.0/src/doc/devel.txi.

INFO-DIR-SECTION Lisp Programming
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* ecldev: (ecldev).     Embeddable Common Lisp (ECL) Developer's Manual
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

   ECL is an implementation of Common-Lisp designed for being
_embeddable_ into C based applications. This manual documents the
interface for C programmers.

Copyright (C) 2001, Juan Jose Garcia-Ripoll


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Top,  Next: Introduction,  Prev: (dir),  Up: (dir)

Top
***

   ECL is an implementation of Common-Lisp originally designed for being
_embeddable_ into C based applications.  This document describes the
guts of the ECL implementation and how it can cooperate with code
written in other languages, such as C and C++. See *note (ecl)Top:: for
details about the Common-Lisp implementation and how it differs from
standards.

* Menu:

* Introduction::                How ECL relates to C/C++.
* Building programs::           How to build programs using ECL.
* Lisp objects::                Dealing with lisp object from C.
* The interpreter::             Understanding the interpreter.
* The compiler::                How the Lisp2C translator works.
* The Garbage Collector::       Get the GC to do the right thing
* Porting ECL::                 Porting ECL to other architectures.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Introduction,  Next: Building programs,  Prev: Top,  Up: Top

1 Introduction
**************

ECL is an implementation of the Common-Lisp language that is based on a
kernel written in C plus a set of libraries written in Common-Lisp. The
kernel includes a bytecodes compiler, an interpreter, and enough
functions to create and manipulate all lisp objects. The lisp libraries
provide higher level constructs such as macro definitions, LOOPs, an
implementation of CLOS, and a translator from Lisp to C.

   As a result of this design, which dates back to the Kyoto CL and was
later improved in Giuseppe Attardi's ECoLisp, ECL can be used as
   * As a standalone implementation of the Common-Lisp language

   * As an embedded interpreter subject to the control of a larger C
     program.

   * As a Common-Lisp environment with C/C++ extensions.
   This manual describes the facility of ECL to interface the C
language and ECL.  With this facility, the user can arrange his or her
C-language programs so that they can be invoked from ECL. In addition,
the user can write Lisp function definitions in the C language to
increase runtime efficiency.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Building programs,  Next: Lisp objects,  Prev: Introduction,  Up: Top

2 Building programs
*******************

In this chapter we describe how you can use ECL to build programs and
loadable extensions that you can later on distribute to other people.

* Menu:

* What can ECL do?::
* Compiling files::
* Building standalone executables::
* Building libraries::
* File names::
* Compiler examples::


File: ecldev.info,  Node: What can ECL do?,  Next: Compiling files,  Prev: Building programs,  Up: Building programs

2.1 What can ECL do?
====================

Some day for some reasons you will be in the need to distribute code
that has been developed using ECL. In the following sections we will
describe the means that ECL offers you to do so. Basically, these are
the alternatives

SOURCE CODE
     You distribute your programs in source code form. This is the
     easiest and most portable way, but not the fastest one.

STANDALONE PROGRAMS
     You translate all your lisp code to C using the ECL compiler. The
     final object files can be linked against other C/C++ libraries to
     obtain a standalone executable.

YOU CAN BUILD STATICALLY AND DYNAMICALLY LINKED LIBRARIES.
     You translate all your lisp code to C and combine the resulting
     object files into a single library with `.a' extension. You can
     distribute this library to other people and the final users can
     utilize these libraries to build standalone programs.

YOU CAN BUILD DYNAMICALLY LOADABLE FILES.
     This is the most flexible way. You translate all lisp code to C
     and link it against possibly other C/C++ libraries to obtain a
     dynamically loadable library (file type `.so' under unix). This
     library can be loaded a startup time to add new functionality to
     the ECL environment.

   In several of these options, we have mentioned the possibility to
include C/C++ code. Even if this is possible, you cannot use ordinary
C/C++ compilers and makefiles to build ECL extensions, let it be
programs or libraries. Briefly, you have to organize your code as
follows
  1. Organize the C code as a library, let it be static or dynamic.

  2. Build a function, say `mymain()', in which the initialization phase
     for your library is performed.

  3. Group the code that interfaces to Lisp in separate C files, all of
     which should include `#include <ecl/ecl.h>' at the beginning.

  4. Compile your lisp source files.

  5. Let ECL build the final executable or library.
        In the final step there are ways to instruct ECL to call your
initialization function (`mymain()' in the example above). These means
are explained in the following sections.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Compiling files,  Next: Building standalone executables,  Prev: What can ECL do?,  Up: Building programs

2.2 Compiling files
===================

ECL supports two types of compilation. One is bytecodes compilation.
This process is performed on-the-fly, as you load source files with
lisp code. This leads to a series of bytes for each instruction, the so
called "bytecodes". These bytecodes are interpreted in a virtual
machine, which is written in C and which is reasonably fast.

   The other type of compilation is the so-called "native" compilation.
This process consists on translating the lisp source file to C
language. The intermediate file is later compiled using a C compiler.
The result is an object file which may have different purposes.

DYNAMICALLY LOADABLE FILES OR FASL (FAST LOADABLE) FILES
     These are produced in a ECL built with support for dynamically
     loadable libraries (Feature :DLOPEN is in *FEATURES*), when no
     extra arguments are passed to `compile-file'. These object files
     typically have the `.fas' extension, and can be loaded with
     `load'. They cannot be used to build libraries nor standalone
     executable programs.

LINKABLE OBJECT FILES
     These are produced when invoking `compile-file' with the keyword
     argument :SYSTEM-P set to true. The object file typically has the
     `.o' extension. It cannot be loaded with `load', but it can be
     used to build libraries, standalone executable programs, or larger
     FASL files.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Building standalone executables,  Next: Building libraries,  Prev: Compiling files,  Up: Building programs

2.3 Building standalone executables
===================================

To build an executable you need a working ECL image with the compiler.
The function to build customized images is C::BUILD-PROGRAM. The
description of this function is as follows. Care should be taken that
IMAGE-NAME differs from any filename in LISP-FILES.

 -- Function: c:build-program {IMAGE-NAME &key LISP-FILES LD-FLAGS
          PROLOGUE-CODE EPILOGUE-CODE}
     This function builds a lisp image up from the core lisp library,
     plus all components listed in LISP-FILES.  Each component is
     either:
        * A symbol: Names a statically linked library built from lisp
          code.

        * A string: Denotes an object file built from lisp code.
     LD-FLAGS is a list of strings with additional parameters to be
     passed to the linker. You can include here your favorite C/C++
     libraries.

     PROLOGUE-CODE and EPILOGUE-CODE are used to customize the
     initialization process of the lisp image.  In order to build the
     executable, C:BUILD-PROGRAM first writes down a piece of C code
     which initializes the lisp environment. You can customize the
     initialization process by suppling code to be executed before
     (PROLOGUE-CODE) or after (EPILOGUE-CODE) setting up the lisp
     environment. Typically PROLOGUE-CODE defaults to an empty string,
     while EPILOGUE-CODE invokes the classical lisp TOP-LEVEL.
     Additionally, as a convenience, EPILOGUE-CODE can be either a
     string with C code or also a list with a lisp form, which will be
     interpreted at run time.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Building libraries,  Next: File names,  Prev: Building standalone executables,  Up: Building programs

2.4 Building libraries
======================

To build a library you proceed more or less the same way as with
standalone executables. There are two different functions depending on
whether you need to build static or shared libraries.

 -- Function: c:build-static-library {LIBRARY-NAME &key LISP-FILES
          PROLOGUE-CODE EPILOGUE-CODE INIT-NAME}
 -- Function: c:build-shared-library {LIBRARY-NAME &key LISP-FILES
          PROLOGUE-CODE EPILOGUE-CODE LD-FLAGS INIT-NAME}
     This function builds a library file up from the object files
     listed in LISP-FILES. Each of the arguments to LISP-FILE must name
     a single object file produced with `compile-file'.

     LIBRARY-NAME is the physical pathname corresponding to the
     library. The value of LIBRARY-NAME must follow some
     system-specific conventions.  To make your program portable,
     LIBRARY-NAME should be built using the output of
     `compile-file-pathname'.

     PROLOGUE-CODE and EPILOGUE-CODE are strings with C code to be
     executed before and after initializing the library, respectively.
     For dynamically linked libraries you can also provide a list of
     strings in LD-FLAGS. These strings are additional parameters for
     the linker and their purpose is to link C/C++ extensions into the
     library.

     INIT-NAME gives the initialization function of the library a
     user-specified name. Thus a the generated library may be used
     and/or linked to a C application.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: File names,  Next: Compiler examples,  Prev: Building libraries,  Up: Building programs

2.5 File names
==============

 -- Function: compile-file-pathname {FILENAME-BASE &key OUTPUT-FILE
          TYPE}
     When compiling lisp files, creating libraries, etc, a number of
     files are produced which are of interest for the user or
     programmer. However, the name of these files will change from
     system to system. The purpose of the function
     `compile-file-pathname' is to query the compiler about the name of
     the different files that it can produce. Possible values of the
     TYPE argument include:

    :FAS (DEFAULT)
          Standard compiled files that can be loaded with `load'.

    :C, :DATA, :H
          Intermediate files produced by the Lisp-to-C translator.

    :O
          Linkable object files.

    :LIB, :STATIC-LIBRARY
          A normal library produced with `c:build-static-library'.

    :DLL, :SHARED-LIBRARY
          A dynamically linked library produced with
          `c:build-shared-library'.

    :PROGRAM
          An executable produced with `c:build-program'.

     The output of this function is system specific. For example, under
     FreeBSD
     > (compile-file-pathname "/this/path/mylib" :type :lib)
     #P"/this/path/libmylib.a"
     > (compile-file-pathname "/this/path/mylib" :type :dll)
     #P"/this/path/libmylib.so"
     > (compile-file-pathname "/this/path/mycode")
     #P"/this/path/mycode.fas"


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Compiler examples,  Prev: File names,  Up: Building programs

2.6 Compiler examples
=====================

2.6.1 The `hello.lisp' file
---------------------------

In the following examples we will use the same lisp program. You have to
create a file called `hello.lisp' which contains the following lines
     (princ "Hello world!")
     (terpri)
     (quit)
   If you start ECL and load this file in the Common-Lisp environment
you will see the `"Hello world!"' message and the interpreter will be
closed.
ECL (Embeddable Common-Lisp) 0.9d
Copyright (C) 1984 Taiichi Yuasa and Masami Hagiya
Copyright (C) 1993 Giuseppe Attardi
Copyright (C) 2000 Juan J. Garcia-Ripoll
        ECL is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; see file 'Copyright' for details.
Type :h for Help.  Top level.
> (load "hello.lisp")
;;; Loading "hello.lisp"
Hello World!

2.6.2 Example of loadable object file
-------------------------------------

You can only perform the example in this section if your ECL image
supports dynamically loading of object files. This is true if you find
the keyword :DLOPEN in the *FEATURES* variable. This is true, for
instance, in a typical FreeBSD or Linux box,
Type :h for Help.  Top level.
> *features*
(:IEEE-FLOATING-POINT :IBM-PC :I386 :BSD :UNIX :DLOPEN :ANSI-CL :CLOS
    :BOEHM-GC :ECL :COMMON)

   In this example we build a loadable extension which prints the
`"Hello world!"' message. First you need to create a the `hello.lisp'
file. Next you have to enter the ECL environment and type `(compile-file
"hello.lisp")'. This produces a loadable object file.

Type :h for Help.  Top level.
> (compile-file "hello.lisp")
;;; Loading #P"/usr/lib/ecl/cmp.fas"
;;; Loading #P"/usr/lib/ecl/sysfun.lsp"
;;; Compiling hello.lisp.
;;; End of Pass 1.
;;; Calling the C compiler...
;;; Invoking external command: gcc -O2 -march=i686 -pipe -fomit-frame-pointer -fPIC -fstrict-aliasing -Dlinux -O "-I/usr/lib/ecl/" -w -c "hello.c" -o "hello.o"
;;; Invoking external command: gcc -o "hello.fas" -L"/usr/lib/ecl/" "hello.o"  -Wl,-rpath,/usr/lib/ecl/ -shared   -lecl -lgmp -lgc -ldl -lm
;;; OPTIMIZE levels: Safety=2, Space=0, Speed=3
;;; Finished compiling hello.lisp.
#P"hello.fas"
Top level.
> (load "hello")
;;; Loading #P"hello.fas"
Hello World!

2.6.3 Example of standalone program
-----------------------------------

In this example we build a standalone program which prints the `"Hello
world!"' message and does nothing else. First you must create the
`hello.lisp' file shown above. Next you have to enter the ECL
environment and type `(compile-file "hello.lisp" :system-p t)'. This
produces an object file that can be linked against the ECL core image.

Type :h for Help.  Top level.
> (compile-file "hello.lisp" :system-p t)
;;; Loading #P"/usr/lib/ecl/cmp.fas"
;;; Loading #P"/usr/lib/ecl/sysfun.lsp"
;;; Compiling hello.lisp.
;;; End of Pass 1.
;;; Calling the C compiler...
;;; Invoking external command: gcc -O2 -march=i686 -pipe -fomit-frame-pointer -fPIC -fstrict-aliasing -Dlinux -O "-I/usr/lib/ecl/" -w -c "hello.c" -o "hello.o"
;;; OPTIMIZE levels: Safety=2, Space=0, Speed=3
;;; Finished compiling hello.lisp.
#P"hello.o"

The final step is to build the executable using the `c:build-program'
instruction.
> (c:build-program "myecl" :lisp-files '("hello.o"))
;;; Invoking external command: gcc -O2 -march=i686 -pipe -fomit-frame-pointer -fPIC -fstrict-aliasing -Dlinux -O "-I/usr/lib/ecl/" -w -c "myecl.c" -o "myecl.o"
;;; Invoking external command: gcc -o "myecl" -L"/usr/lib/ecl/" "myecl.o" "hello.o"  -Wl,-rpath,/usr/lib/ecl/  -lecl -lgmp -lgc -ldl -lm
#P"myecl"
Top level.
   Now you can execute this program from your favorite shell.

% ./myecl
Hello world!

2.6.4 Combining files into a larger FASL
----------------------------------------

You can only perform the example in this section if your ECL image
supports dynamically loading of object files. In this example we build
a loadable library which prints the `"Hello world!"' message and does
nothing else. First you must create the `hello.lisp' file shown above.
Next you have to enter the ECL environment and type `(compile-file
"hello.lisp" :system-p t)'. This produces an object file that can be
linked to form a loadable library.

Type :h for Help.  Top level.
> (compile-file "hello.lisp" :system-p t)
;;; Loading #P"/usr/lib/ecl/cmp.fas"
;;; Loading #P"/usr/lib/ecl/sysfun.lsp"
;;; Compiling hello.lisp.
;;; End of Pass 1.
;;; Calling the C compiler...
;;; Invoking external command: gcc -O2 -march=i686 -pipe -fomit-frame-pointer -fPIC -fstrict-aliasing -Dlinux -O "-I/usr/lib/ecl/" -w -c "hello.c" -o "hello.o"
;;; OPTIMIZE levels: Safety=2, Space=0, Speed=3
;;; Finished compiling hello.lisp.
#P"hello.o"

The final step is to build the library using the `c:build-fasl'
instruction.
> (c:build-fasl "myecl" :lisp-files '("hello.o"))
;;; Invoking external command: gcc -O2 -march=i686 -pipe -fomit-frame-pointer -fPIC -fstrict-aliasing -Dlinux -O "-I/usr/lib/ecl/" -w -c "myecl.c" -o "myecl.o"
;;; Invoking external command: gcc -o "libmyecl.so" -L"/usr/lib/ecl/" "myecl.o" "hello.o"  -Wl,-rpath,/usr/lib/ecl/ -shared   -lecl -lgmp -lgc -ldl -lm
#P"libmyecl.so"
   Now you can load this extension from any ECL image, even those you
produce with `c:build-program'.

<<<<<<<< THIS EXAMPLE IS WRONG?! >>>>>>>>>
> (load "myecl")
;;; Loading myecl.fas
Hello world!
Bye.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Lisp objects,  Next: The interpreter,  Prev: Building programs,  Up: Top

3 Manipulating Lisp objects
***************************

If you want to extend, fix or simply customize ECL for your own needs,
you should understand how the implementation works.

* Menu:

* Objects representation::
* Constructing objects::
* Integers::
* Characters::
* Arrays::
* Strings::
* Bitvectors::
* Streams::
* Structures::
* Instances::
* Bytecodes::


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Objects representation,  Next: Constructing objects,  Prev: Lisp objects,  Up: Lisp objects

3.1 Objects representation
==========================

In ECL a lisp object is represented by a type called `cl_object'. This
type is a word which is long enough to host both an integer and a
pointer. The least significant bits of this word, also called the tag
bits, determine whether it is a pointer to a C structure representing a
complex object, or whether it is an immediate data, such as a fixnum or
a character.

	|-------------------|--|
	|    Fixnum value   |01|
	|-------------------|--|

	|------------|------|--|
	| Unused bits| char |10|
	|------------|------|--|

	|----------------------|     |--------|--------|-----|--------|
	|    Pointer to cell   |---->| word-1 | word-2 | ... | word-n |
	|----------------------|     |--------|--------|-----|--------|
	| ...................00|     |    actual data of the object   |
	|----------------------|     |--------------------------------|

   The fixnums and characters are called immediate datatypes, because
they require no more than the `cl_object' datatype to store all
information.  All other ECL objects are non-immediate and they are
represented by a pointer to a cell that is allocated on the heap.  Each
cell consists of several words of memory and contains all the
information related to that object. By storing data in multiples of a
word size, we make sure that the least significant bits of a pointer
are zero, which distinguishes pointers from immediate data.

   In an immediate datatype, the tag bits determine the type of the
object. In non-immediate datatypes, the first byte in the cell contains
the secondary type indicator, and distinguishes between different types
of non immediate data. The use of the remaining bytes differs for each
type of object.  For instance, a cons cell consists of three words:

	|---------|----------|
	|CONS|    |          |
	|---------|----------|
	|     car-pointer    |
	|--------------------|
	|     cdr-pointer    |
	|--------------------|

   There is one important function which tells the type of an object,
plus several macros which group several tests.

 -- C type: cl_object
     This is the type of a lisp object. For your C/C++ program, a
     `cl_object' can be either a fixnum, a character, or a pointer to a
     union of structures (See the header `object.h'). The actual
     interpretation of that object can be guessed with the macro
     `type_of'.

     For example, if X is of type `cl_object', and it is of type fixnum,
     we may retrieve its value
          if (type_of(x) == t_fixnum)
                 	printf("Integer value: %d\n", fix(x));
     If X is of type `cl_object' and it does not contain an immediate
     datatype, you may inspect the cell associated to the lisp object
     using X as a pointer. For example,
          if (type_of(x) == t_cons)
                  printf("CAR = %x, CDR = %x\n", x->cons.car, x->cons.cdr);
          else if (type_of(x) == t_string)
                  printf("String: %s\n", x->string.self);
     You should see the following sections and the header `object.h' to
     learn how to use the different fields of a `cl_object' pointer.

 -- C type: cl_type
     Enumeration type which distinguishes the different types of lisp
     objects.  The most important values are t_cons, t_fixnum,
     t_character, t_bignum, t_ratio, t_singlefloat, t_doublefloat,
     t_complex, t_symbol, t_package, t_hashtable, t_array, t_vector,
     t_string, t_bitvector, t_stream, t_random, t_readtable,
     t_pathname, t_bytecodes, t_cfun, t_cclosure, t_gfun, t_instance,
     t_foreign and t_thread.

 -- Function: cl_type type_of (cl_object O)
     If O is a valid lisp object, `type_of(O)' returns an integer
     denoting the type that lisp object. That integer is one of the
     values of the enumeration type `cl_type'.

 -- Function: bool FIXNUMP (cl_object O)
 -- Function: bool CHARACTERP (cl_object O)
 -- Function: bool CONSP (cl_object O)
 -- Function: bool LISTP (cl_object O)
 -- Function: bool ATOM (cl_object O)
 -- Function: bool ARRAYP (cl_object O)
 -- Function: bool VECTORP (cl_object O)
 -- Function: bool STRINGP (cl_object O)
     Different macros that check whether O belongs to the specified
     type.  These checks have been optimized, and are preferred over
     several calls to `type_of'.

 -- Function: bool IMMEDIATE (cl_object O)
     Tells whether O is an immediate datatype.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Constructing objects,  Next: Integers,  Prev: Objects representation,  Up: Lisp objects

3.2 Constructing objects
========================

On each of the following sections we will document the standard
interface for building objects of different types. For some objects,
though, it is too difficult to make a C interface that resembles all of
the functionality in the lisp environment. In those cases you need to

  1. build the objects from their textual representation, or

  2. use the evaluator to build these objects.
        The first way makes use of a C or Lisp string to construct an
object. The two functions you need to know are the following ones.

 -- Function: cl_object c_string_to_object (const char *S)
 -- Function: cl_object string_to_object (cl_object O)
     `c_string_to_object' builds a lisp object from a C string which
     contains a suitable representation of a lisp object.
     `string_to_object' performs the same task, but uses a lisp string,
     and therefore it is less useful. Two examples of their use

          /* Using a C string */
          cl_object array1 = c_string_to_object("#(1 2 3 4)");

          /* Using a Lisp string */
          cl_object string = make_simple_string("#(1 2 3 4)");
          cl_object array2 = string_to_object(string);


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Integers,  Next: Characters,  Prev: Constructing objects,  Up: Lisp objects

3.3 Integers
============

Common-Lisp distinguishes two types of integer types: bignums and
fixnums. A fixnum is a small integer, which ideally occupies only a
word of memory and which is between the values MOST-NEGATIVE-FIXNUM and
MOST-POSITIVE-FIXNUM. A bignum is any integer which is not a fixnum and
it is only constrained by the amount of memory available to represent
it.

   In ECL a fixnum is an integer that, together with the tag bits, fits
in a word of memory. The size of a word, and thus the size of a fixnum,
varies from one architecture to another, and you should refer to the
types and constants in the `ecl.h' header to make sure that your C
extensions are portable.  All other integers are stored as bignums,
they are not immediate objects, they take up a variable amount of
memory and the GNU Multiprecision Library is required to create,
manipulate and calculate with them.

 -- C type: cl_fixnum
     This is a C signed integer type capable of holding a whole fixnum
     without any loss of precision. The opposite is not true, and you
     may create a `cl_fixnum' which exceeds the limits of a fixnum and
     should be stored as a bignum.

 -- C type: cl_index
     This is a C unsigned integer type capable of holding a nonnegative
     fixnum without loss of precision. Typically, a `cl_index' is used
     as an index into an array, or into a proper list, etc.

 -- Constant: MOST_NEGATIVE_FIXNUM
 -- Constant: MOST_POSITIVE_FIXNUM
     These constants mark the limits of a fixnum.

 -- Function: bool FIXNUM_MINUSP (cl_object O)
 -- Function: bool FIXNUM_PLUSP (cl_object O)
     These functions perform the checks (O < 0) and (0 <= O),
     respectively.

 -- Function: cl_object MAKE_FIXNUM (cl_fixnum N)
 -- Function: cl_fixnum fix (cl_object O)
     `MAKE_FIXNUM' and `fix' convert from an integer to a lisp object
     of fixnum type and vice versa. These functions no not check their
     arguments.

 -- Function: cl_fixnum fixint (cl_object O)
     Converts a lisp fixnum to a C integer of the appropriate size.
     Signals an error if O is not of fixnum type.

 -- Function: cl_index fixnnint (cl_object O)
     Similar to `fixint' but also ensures that O is not negative.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Characters,  Next: Arrays,  Prev: Integers,  Up: Lisp objects

3.4 Characters
==============

ECL has only one type of characters, which fits in the C type `char'.
The following constants and functions operate on characters.

 -- Constant: CHAR_CODE_LIMIT
     Each character is assigned an integer code which ranges from 0 to
     (CHAR_CODE_LIMIT-1).

 -- Function: cl_fixnum CHAR_CODE (cl_object O)
 -- Function: cl_fixnum char_code (cl_object O)
     Returns the integer code associated to a lisp character. Only
     `char_code' checks its arguments.

 -- Function: cl_object CODE_CHAR (cl_fixnum O)
     Returns the lisp character associated to an integer code. It does
     not check its arguments.

 -- Function: cl_object coerce_to_character (cl_object O)
     Coerces a lisp object to type character. Valid arguments are a
     character, or a string designator of length 1. In all other cases
     an error is signaled.

 -- Function: bool char_eq (cl_object X, cl_object Y)
 -- Function: bool char_equal (cl_object X, cl_object Y)
     Compare two characters for equality. `char_eq' take case into
     account and `char_equal' ignores it.

 -- Function: int char_cmp (cl_object X, cl_object Y)
 -- Function: int char_compare (cl_object X, cl_object Y)
     Compare the relative order of two characters. `char_cmp' takes
     care of case and `char_compare' converts all characters to
     uppercase before comparing them.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Arrays,  Next: Strings,  Prev: Characters,  Up: Lisp objects

3.5 Arrays
==========

An array is an aggregate of data of a common type, which can be
accessed with one or more nonnegative indices. ECL stores arrays as a C
structure with a pointer to the region of memory which contains the
actual data. The cell of an array datatype varies depending on whether
it is a vector, a bytevector, a multidimensional array or a string.

   If X contains a vector, you can access the following fields:
`x->vector.elttype'
     The type of the elements of the vector.

`x->vector.dim'
     The maximum number of elements.

`x->vector.fillp'
     Actual number of elements in the vector or "fill pointer".

`x->vector.self'
     Union of pointers of different types. You should choose the right
     pointer depending on `x->vector.elltype'

`x->vector.hasfillp'
     Whether `x->vector.fillp' can be smaller than `x->vector.dim'.

   If X contains a multidimensional array, the cell elements become
`x->array.elttype'
     The type of the elements of the array.

`x->array.dim'
     Number of elements in the array.

`x->array.rank'
     Number of dimensions of the array.

`x->array.dims[]'
     Array with the dimensions of the array. The elements range from
     `x->array.dim[0]' to `x->array.dim[x->array.rank-1]'.

`x->array.self'
     Union of pointers to the actual data. You should choose the right
     pointer depending on `x->array.elltype'.

`x->array.rank'
     Whether `x->vector.fillp' can be smaller than `x->vector.dim'.
   Bitvectors and strings are treated separately.

   Each array is of an specialized type which is the type of the
elements of the array. ECL has arrays only a few following specialized
types, and for each of these types there is a C integer which is the
corresponding value of `x->array.elttype' or `x->vector.elttype'. We
list those types together with the C constant that denotes that type:
T
     `aet_object'

CHARACTER
     `aet_ch'

FIXNUM
     `aet_fix'

BIT
     `aet_bit'

SINGLE-FLOAT
     `aet_sf'

DOUBLE-FLOAT
     `aet_df'

 -- Function: cl_elttype array_elttype (cl_object O)
     Returns the element type of the array O, which can be a string, a
     bitvector, vector, or a multidimensional array. For example, the
     code `array_elttype(c_string_to_object("\"AAA\""))' returns
     `aet_ch', while the `array_elttype(c_string_to_object("#(A B
     C)"))' returns `aet_object'.

 -- Function: cl_object aref (cl_object ARRAY, cl_index INDEX)
 -- Function: cl_object aset (cl_object ARRAY, cl_index INDEX,
          cl_object VALUE)
     These functions are used to retrieve and set the elements of an
     array. The elements are accessed with one index, INDEX, as in the
     lisp function `ROW-MAJOR-AREF'. For example

          cl_object array = c_string_to_object("#2A((1 2) (3 4))");
          cl_object x = aref(array, 3);
          cl_print(1, x);	/* Outputs 4 */
          aset(array, 3, MAKE_FIXNUM(5));
          cl_print(1, array); /* Outputs #2A((1 2) (3 5)) */

 -- Function: cl_object aref1 (cl_object VECTOR, cl_index INDEX)
 -- Function: cl_object aset1 (cl_object VECTOR, cl_index INDEX,
          cl_object VALUE)
     These functions are similar to `aref' and `aset', but they operate
     on vectors.
          cl_object array = c_string_to_object("#(1 2 3 4)");
          cl_object x = aref1(array, 3);
          cl_print(1, x);	/* Outputs 4 */
          aset1(array, 3, MAKE_FIXNUM(5));
          cl_print(1, array); /* Outputs #(1 2 3 5) */


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Strings,  Next: Bitvectors,  Prev: Arrays,  Up: Lisp objects

3.6 Strings
===========

A string, both in Common-Lisp and in ECL is nothing but a vector of
characters. Therefore, almost everything mentioned in the section of
arrays remains valid here. The only important difference is that ECL
stores strings as a lisp object with a pointer to a zero terminated C
string. Thus, if a string has N characters, ECL will reserve N+1 bytes
for the string. This allows us to pass the string `self' pointer to any
C routine.

   If X is a lisp object of type string, we can access the following
fields:
`x->string.dim'
     Maximum number of characters that it can contain.

`x->string.fillp'
     Actual number of characters in the string.

`x->string.self'
     Pointer to the characters.

`x->string.hasfillp'
     True if `x->string.fillp' can be smaller than `x->string.dim'.

 -- Function: cl_object make_simple_string (char *S)
 -- Function: cl_object make_string_copy (char *S)
     Both routines build a lisp string from a C string.
     `make_string_copy' allocates new space and copies the content of
     the string to it. `make_simple_string' simply uses the memory
     pointed by S, which should not be deallocated. Both routines use
     `strlen' to calculate the length of the string.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Bitvectors,  Next: Streams,  Prev: Strings,  Up: Lisp objects

3.7 Bitvectors
==============


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Streams,  Next: Structures,  Prev: Bitvectors,  Up: Lisp objects

3.8 Streams
===========


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Structures,  Next: Instances,  Prev: Streams,  Up: Lisp objects

3.9 Structures
==============


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Instances,  Next: Bytecodes,  Prev: Structures,  Up: Lisp objects

3.10 Instances
==============


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Bytecodes,  Prev: Instances,  Up: Lisp objects

3.11 Bytecodes
==============

A bytecodes object is a lisp object with a piece of code that can be
interpreted. The objects of type `t_bytecode' are implicitly constructed
by a call to `eval', but can also be explicitly constructed with the
`make_lambda' function.

 -- Function: cl_object cl_safe_eval (cl_object FORM, cl_object ENV,
          cl_object ERR_VALUE
 -- Function: cl_object cl_eval (cl_object FORM)
     `cl_safe_eval' evaluates FORM in the lexical environment ENV,
     which can be NIL. Before evaluating it, the expression FORM must
     be bytecompiled. `cl_eval' is the equivalent of `cl_safe_eval' but
     without environment and with ERR_VALUE set to NIL. It exists only
     for compatibility with previous versions.
          cl_object form = c_string_to_object("(print 1)");
          cl_safe_eval(form,Cnil);
          cl_safe_eval(form, Cnil);

 -- Function: cl_object si_make_lambda (cl_object NAME, cl_object DEF)
     Builds an interpreted lisp function with name given by the symbol
     NAME and body given by DEF. For instance, we would achieve the
     equivalent of
          (funcall #'(lambda (x y) (block foo (+ x y)))
                   1 2)
     with the following code
          cl_object def = c_string_to_object("((x y) (+ x y))");
          cl_object name = _intern("foo")
          cl_object fun = si_make_lambda(name, def);
          return funcall(fun, MAKE_FIXNUM(1), MAKE_FIXNUM(2));
     Notice that `si_safe_lambda' performs a bytecodes compilation of
     the definition and thus it may signal some errors. Such errors are
     not handled by the routine itself you might consider using
     `cl_safe_eval' or `cl_eval' instead:
          cl_object def = c_string_to_object("#'(lambda-block foo (x y) (+ x y))");
          cl_object fun = cl_eval(def);
          return funcall(fun, MAKE_FIXNUM(1), MAKE_FIXNUM(2));


File: ecldev.info,  Node: The interpreter,  Next: The compiler,  Prev: Lisp objects,  Up: Top

4 The interpreter
*****************

* Menu:

* ECL stacks::
* Procedure Call Conventions::
* The lexical environment::
* The interpreter stack::


File: ecldev.info,  Node: ECL stacks,  Next: Procedure Call Conventions,  Prev: The interpreter,  Up: The interpreter

4.1 ECL stacks
==============

ECL uses the following stacks:

FRAME STACK
     consisting of catch, block, tagbody frames

BIND STACK
     for shallow binding of dynamic variables

INTERPRETER STACK
     acts as a Forth data stack, keeping intermediate arguments to
     interpreted functions, plus a history of called functions.

C CONTROL STACK
     used for arguments/values passing, typed lexical variables,
     temporary values, and function invocation.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Procedure Call Conventions,  Next: The lexical environment,  Prev: ECL stacks,  Up: The interpreter

4.2 Procedure Call Conventions
==============================

ECL employs standard C calling conventions to achieve efficiency and
interoperability with other languages.  Each Lisp function is
implemented as a C function which takes as many argument as the Lisp
original plus one additional integer argument which holds the number of
actual arguments.  The function sets `NValues' to the number of Lisp
values produced, it returns the first one and the remaining ones are
kept in  a global (per thread) array (`VALUES').

   To show the argument/value passing mechanism, here we list the actual
code for the Common-Lisp function `cons'.

     cl_cons(int narg, object car, object cdr)
     {       object x;
             check_arg(2);
             x = alloc_object(t_cons);
             CAR(x) = car;
             CDR(x) = cdr;
             NValues = 1;
             return x;
     }

   ECL adopts the convention that the name of a function that
implements a Common-Lisp function begins with a short package name
(`cl' for COMMON-LISP, `si' for SYSTEM, etc), followed by `L', and
followed by the name of the Common-Lisp function.  (Strictly speaking,
``-'' and ``*'' in the Common-Lisp function name are replaced by ``_''
and ``A'', respectively, to obey the syntax of C.)

   `check_arg(2)' in the code of `cl_cons' checks that exactly two
arguments are supplied to `cons'.  That is, it checks that `narg' is 2,
and otherwise, it causes an error.  `allocate_object(t_cons)' allocates
a cons cell in the heap and returns the pointer to the cell.  After the
`CAR' and the `CDR' fields of the cell are set, the cell pointer is
returned directly. The number assigned to NValues set by the function
(1 in this case) represents the number of values of the function.

   In general, if one is to play with the C kernel of ECL there is no
need to know about all these conventions. There is a preprocessor that
takes care of the details, by using a lisp representation of the
statements that output values, and of the function definitions. For
instance, the actual source code for `cl_cons' in `src/c/lists.d'

     @(defun cons (car cdr)
     @
             @(return CONS(car, cdr))
     @)


File: ecldev.info,  Node: The lexical environment,  Next: The interpreter stack,  Prev: Procedure Call Conventions,  Up: The interpreter

4.3 The lexical environment
===========================

The ECL interpreter uses two A-lists (Association lists) to represent
lexical environments.

   * One for variable bindings

   * One for local function/macro/tag/block bindings

   When a function closure is created, the current two A-lists are
saved in the closure along with the lambda expression.  Later, when the
closure is invoked, the saved A-lists are used to recover the lexical
environment.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: The interpreter stack,  Prev: The lexical environment,  Up: The interpreter

4.4 The interpreter stack
=========================

The bytecodes interpreter uses a stack of its own to save and restore
values from intermediate calculations. This Forth-like data stack is
also used in other parts of the C kernel for various purposes, such as
saving compiled code, keeping arguments to FORMAT, etc.

   However, one of the most important roles of the Interpreter Stack is
to keep a log of the functions which are called during the execution of
bytecodes. For each function invoked, the interpreter keeps three lisp
objects on the stack:

    +----------+------------------------------------------------+
    | function | lexical environment | index to previous record |
    +----------+---------------------+--------------------------+

   The first item is the object which is funcalled. It can be a
bytecodes object, a compiled function or a generic function. In the
last two cases the lexical environment is just NIL. In the first case,
the second item on the stack is the lexical environment on which the
code is executed. Each of these records are popped out of the stack
after function invocation.

   Let us see how these invocation records are used for debugging.
>(defun fact (x)                ;;;  Wrong definition of the
   (if (= x 0)                  ;;;  factorial function.
       one                      ;;;  one  should be  1.
       (* x (fact (1- x)))))
FACT

>(fact 3)                       ;;;  Tries  3!
Error: The variable ONE is unbound.
Error signalled by IF.
Broken at IF.
>>:b                            ;;;  Backtrace.
Backtrace: eval > fact > if > fact > if > fact > if > fact > IF
                                ;;;  Currently at the last  IF.
>>:h                            ;;;  Help.

Break commands:
:q(uit)         Return to some previous break level.
:pop            Pop to previous break level.
:c(ontinue)     Continue execution.
:b(acktrace)    Print backtrace.
:f(unction)     Show current function.
:p(revious)     Go to previous function.
:n(ext)         Go to next function.
:g(o)           Go to next function.
:fs             Search forward for function.
:bs             Search backward for function.
:v(ariables)    Show local variables, functions, blocks, and tags.
:l(ocal)        Return the nth local value on the stack.
:hide           Hide function.
:unhide         Unhide function.
:hp             Hide package.
:unhp           Unhide package.
:unhide-all     Unhide all variables and packages.
:bds            Show binding stack.
:m(essage)      Show error message.
:hs             Help stack.
Top level commands:
:cf             Compile file.
:exit or ^D     Exit Lisp.
:ld             Load file.
:step           Single step form.
:tr(ace)        Trace function.
:untr(ace)      Untrace function.

Help commands:
:apropos        Apropos.
:doc(ument)     Document.
:h(elp) or ?    Help.  Type ":help help" for more information.

>>:p                        ;;;  Move to the last call of  FACT.
Broken at IF.

>>:b
Backtrace: eval > fact > if > fact > if > fact > if > FACT > if
                            ;;;  Now at the last  FACT.
>>:v                        ;;;  The environment at the last call
Local variables:            ;;;  to  FACT  is recovered.
  X: 0                      ;;;  X  is the only bound variable.
Block names: FACT.          ;;;  The block  FACT  is established.

>>x
0                           ;;;  The value of  x  is  0.

>>(return-from fact 1)      ;;;  Return from the last call of
6                           ;;;  FACT  with the value of  0.
                            ;;;  The execution is resumed and
>                           ;;;  the value  6  is returned.
                            ;;;  Again at the top-level loop.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: The compiler,  Next: The Garbage Collector,  Prev: The interpreter,  Up: Top

5 The compiler
**************

* Menu:

* The compiler translates to C::
* The compiler mimics human C programmer::
* Implementation of Compiled Closures::
* Use of Declarations to Improve Efficiency::
* Inspecting generated C code::
* Embedding C code::
* The C language interface::
* The old C language interface::


File: ecldev.info,  Node: The compiler translates to C,  Next: The compiler mimics human C programmer,  Prev: The compiler,  Up: The compiler

5.1 The compiler translates to C
================================

The ECL compiler is essentially a translator from Common-Lisp to C.
Given a Lisp source file, the compiler first generates three
intermediate files:

   * a C-file which consists of the C version of the Lisp program

   * an H-file which consists of declarations referenced in the C-file

   * a Data-file which consists of Lisp data to be used at load time

   The ECL compiler then invokes the C compiler to compile the C-file
into an object file.  Finally, the contents of the Data-file is
appended to the object file to make a _Fasl-file_.  The generated
Fasl-file can be loaded into the ECL system by the Common-Lisp function
`load'.  By default, the three intermediate files are deleted after the
compilation, but, if asked, the compiler leaves them.

   The merits of the use of C as the intermediate language are:

   - The ECL compiler is highly portable.

   - Cross compilation is possible, because the contents of the
     intermediate files are common to all versions of ECL.  For example,
     one can compile his or her Lisp program by the ECL compiler on a
     Sun, bring the intermediate files to DOS, compile the C-file with
     the gcc compiler under DOS, and then append the Data-file to the
     object file.  This procedure generates the Fasl-file for the ECL
     system on DOS.  This kind of cross compilation makes it easier to
     port ECL.

   - Hardware-dependent optimizations such as register allocations are
     done by the C compiler.

   The demerits are:

   - At those sites where no C compiler is available, the users cannot
     compile their Lisp programs.

   - The compilation time is long.  70% to 80% of the compilation time
     is used by the C compiler.  The ECL compiler is therefore slower
     than compiler generating machine code directly.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: The compiler mimics human C programmer,  Next: Implementation of Compiled Closures,  Prev: The compiler translates to C,  Up: The compiler

5.2 The compiler mimics human C programmer
==========================================

The format of the intermediate C code generated by the ECL compiler is
the same as the hand-coded C code of the ECL source programs.  For
example, supposing that the Lisp source file contains the following
function definition:

     (defvar *delta* 2)
     (defun add1 (x) (+ *delta* x))

The compiler generates the following intermediate C code.

     /*	function definition for ADD1                                  */
     static cl_object L1(cl_object V1)
     { VT2 VLEX2 CLSR2
     	cl_object value0;
     	value0=number_plus(symbol_value(VV[0]),V1); NVALUES=1;
     	return value0;
     }
     /*      initialization of this module                                 */
     void init_CODE(cl_object flag)
     { VT1 CLSR1
     	cl_object value0;
     	if (!FIXNUMP(flag)){
     	Cblock=flag;
     	#ifndef ECL_DYNAMIC_VV
     	flag->cblock.data = VV;
     	#endif
     	flag->cblock.self_destruct=0;
     	flag->cblock.data_size = VM;
     	flag->cblock.data_text = compiler_data_text;
     	flag->cblock.data_text_size = compiler_data_text_size;
     	return;}
     	#ifdef ECL_DYNAMIC_VV
     	VV = Cblock->cblock.data;
     	#endif
     	T0= MAKE_FIXNUM(2);
     	si_Xmake_special(VV[0])
             if(SYM_VAL(T0)!=OBJNULL) cl_setq(VV[0],T0);
     	cl_def_c_function(VV[1],(void*)L1,1);
     }

   The C function `L1' implements the Lisp function `add1'.  This
relation is established by `cl_def_c_function' in the initialization
function `init_CODE', which is invoked at load time.  There, the vector
`VV' consists of Lisp objects; `VV[0]' and `VV[1]' in this example hold
the Lisp symbols `*delta*' and `add1'. `VM' in the definition of `L1'
is a C macro declared in the corresponding H-file.  The actual value of
`VM' is the number of value stack locations used by this module, i.e.,
2 in this example.  Thus the following macro definition is found in the
H-file.
     #define VM 2


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Implementation of Compiled Closures,  Next: Use of Declarations to Improve Efficiency,  Prev: The compiler mimics human C programmer,  Up: The compiler

5.3 Implementation of Compiled Closures
=======================================

The ECL compiler takes two passes before it invokes the C compiler.
The major role of the first pass is to detect function closures and to
detect, for each function closure, those lexical objects (i.e., lexical
variable, local function definitions, tags, and block-names) to be
enclosed within the closure.  This check must be done before the C code
generation in the second pass, because lexical objects to be enclosed
in function closures are treated in a different way from those not
enclosed.

   Ordinarily, lexical variables in a compiled function _f_ are
allocated on the C stack.  However, if a lexical variable is to be
enclosed in function closures, it is allocated on a list, called the
"environment list", which is local to _f_.  In addition, a local
variable is created which points to the lexical variable's location
(within the environment list), so that the variable may be accessed
through an indirection rather than by list traversal.

   The environment list is a pushdown list: It is empty when _f_ is
called.  An element is pushed on the environment list when a variable
to be enclosed in closures is bound, and is popped when the binding is
no more in effect.  That is, at any moment during execution of _f_, the
environment list contains those lexical variables whose binding is
still in effect and which should be enclosed in closures.  When a
compiled closure is created during execution of _f_, the compiled code
for the closure is coupled with the environment list at that moment to
form the compiled closure.

   Later, when the compiled closure is invoked, a pointer is set up to
each lexical variable in the environment list, so that each object may
be referenced through a memory indirection.

   Let us see an example.  Suppose the following function has been
compiled.

     (defun foo (x)
         (let ((a #'(lambda () (incf x)))
               (y x))
           (values a #'(lambda () (incf x y)))))

   `foo' returns two compiled closures.  The first closure increments X
by one, whereas the second closure increments X by the initial value of
X.  Both closures return the incremented value of X.

>(multiple-value-setq (f g) (foo 10))
#<compiled-closure nil>

>(funcall f)
11

>(funcall g)
21

>

   After this, the two compiled closures look like:

second closure       y:                     x:
|-------|------|      |-------|------|       |------|------|
|  **   |    --|----->|  10   |    --|------>|  21  | nil  |
|-------|------|      |-------|------|       |------|------|
                                                ^
                      first closure             |
                      |-------|------|          |
                      |   *   |    --|----------|
                      |-------|------|

 * : address of the compiled code for #'(lambda () (incf x))
** : address of the compiled code for #'(lambda () (incf x y))


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Use of Declarations to Improve Efficiency,  Next: Inspecting generated C code,  Prev: Implementation of Compiled Closures,  Up: The compiler

5.4 Use of Declarations to Improve Efficiency
=============================================

Declarations, especially  type  and  function  declarations, increase
the efficiency of the compiled code.  For example, for the following
Lisp source file, with two Common-Lisp declarations added,

     (eval-when (compile)
       (proclaim '(function tak (fixnum fixnum fixnum) fixnum))

     (defun tak (x y z)
       (declare (fixnum x y z))
       (if (not (< y x))
           z
           (tak (tak (1- x) y z)
                (tak (1- y) z x)
                (tak (1- z) x y))))

   The compiler generates the following C code:

     /*      local entry for function TAK                                  */
     static int LI1(register int V1,register int V2,register int V3)
     { VT3 VLEX3 CLSR3
     TTL:
             if (V2 < V1) {
             goto L2;}
             return(V3);
     L2:
             { int V5;
               V5 = LI1((V1)-1,V2,V3);
             { int V6;
               V6 = LI1((V2)-1,V3,V1);
               V3 = LI1((V3)-1,V1,V2);
               V2 = V6;
               V1 = V5;}}
             goto TTL;
     ;;; Note: Tail-recursive call of TAK was replaced by iteration.
     }


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Inspecting generated C code,  Next: Embedding C code,  Prev: Use of Declarations to Improve Efficiency,  Up: The compiler

5.5 Inspecting generated C code
===============================

Common-Lisp defines a function disassemble, which is supposed to
disassemble a compiled function and to display the assembler code.
According to _Common-Lisp: The Language_,

   _This is primary useful for debugging the compiler_, ..\\

   This is, however, _useless_ in our case, because we are not
concerned with assembly language.  Rather, we are interested in the C
code generated by the ECL compiler.  Thus the disassemble function in
ECL accepts not-yet-compiled functions only and displays the translated
C code.

> (defun add1 (x) (1+ x))
ADD1
> (disassemble *)
;;; Compiling (DEFUN ADD1 ...).
;;; Emitting code for ADD1.

/*      function definition for ADD1                                  */
static L1(int narg, object V1)
{ VT3 VLEX3 CLSR3
TTL:
        VALUES(0) = one_plus((V1));
        RETURN(1);
}


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Embedding C code,  Next: The C language interface,  Prev: Inspecting generated C code,  Up: The compiler

5.6 Embedding C code in lisp source
===================================

There are several mechanism to integrate C code within ECL, but
everything is built around two functions that allow the user to embed
arbitrary C/C++ code into Lisp source code.

   The two mechanisms are the `Clines' and the `c-inline' special
forms. The first one permits to insert code in the intermediate C/C++
file generated by the ECL compiler. Such a form outputs no value and
takes no arguments, except a series of strings which are inserted
literally, such as `#include' or `#define' statements, function
definitions, etc.

 -- Macro: Clines {{string}*}
     When the ECL compiler encounters a macro form `(Clines STRING1 ...
     STRINGN)', it simply outputs the STRINGS into the c-file.  The
     arguments are not evaluated and each argument must be a string.
     Each STRING may consist of any number of lines, and separate lines
     in the STRING are placed in separate lines in the c-file.  In
     addition, each STRING opens a fresh line in the c-file, i.e., the
     first character in the STRING is placed at the first column of a
     line.  Therefore, C-language preprocessor commands such as
     `#define' and `#include' will be recognized as such by the C
     compiler, if the ' # ' sign appears as the first character of the
     STRING or as the first character of a line within the STRING.

     When interpreted, a `Clines' macro form expands to ().


     (use-package "FFI")

     (Clines
     "   int tak(x, y, z)                       "
     "   int x, y, z;                           "
     "   {   if (y >= x) return(z);             "
     "       else return(tak(tak(x-1, y, z),    "
     "                       tak(y-1, z, x),    "
     "                       tak(z-1, x, y)));  "
     "   }                                      "
     )

     (defun tak (x y z)
       (c-inline (x y z) (:int :int :int) :int
          "tak(#0,#1,#2)" :one-liner t))

   The second mechanism, which you already appreciate in the example
above, is the `c-inline' special form. This powerful method allows the
user to insert C code which is evaluated, and which can accept values
and return values from and to the Lisp world, with an automatic
convertion taking place in both directions.

 -- Macro: c-inline {ARGS-LIST ARG-C-TYPES OUTPUT-C-TYPE C-EXPR &key
          (SIDE-EFFECTS `T') (ONE-LINER `T')}
     `c-inline' is a special form that can only be used in compiled
     code.  For all purposes it behaves as a Lisp form, which takes the
     arguments given in ARGS-LIST and produces a single value. Behind
     the curtains, the arguments of ARGS-LIST (which can be any valid
     Lisp form) are coerced to the the C types given in ARG-C-TYPES,
     passed to the C expression C-EXPR, and coerced back to Lisp using
     the C type OUTPUT-C-TYPE as a guide.  Multiple return values can
     be returned by setting OUTPUT-C-TYPE to `(values type-1 type-2
     ...)'.

     C-EXPR is a string containing C code and maybe some special escape
     codes.  First, the arguments of the form may be retrieved as `#0',
     `#1', etc.  Second, if the `c-inline' form is a one-line C
     expression (That is, ONE-LINER is true), then the whole expression
     is interpreted as the output value. But if the code, on the other
     hand, is a multiline expression (ONE-LINER is false), the form has
     to be output using `@(return) =...'. Multiple values are returned
     as `@(return 0)=... ; @(return 1)=...;'. Finally, Lisp constants
     may be used in the C code making use of the prefix `@'.

          (use-package "FFI")

          (Clines "
          #include <math.h>

          double foo (double x, double y) {
            return sinh(x) * y;
          }")

          (defvar *a*
            (c-inline (1.23) (:double) :double
              "foo(#0,1.44)"
              :side-effects nil
              :one-liner t))

          (defvar *b*
            (c-inline (1.23) (:double) :double
                 "{cl_object x = symbol_value(@*a*);
          	@(return) = foo(#0,object_to_float(x));}"
              :side-effects nil
              :one-liner nil))


File: ecldev.info,  Node: The C language interface,  Next: The old C language interface,  Prev: Embedding C code,  Up: The compiler

5.7 The C language interface
============================

Using these special forms `clines' and `c-inline', plus the ability to
handle pointers to foreign data, we have built a rather complete FFI for
interfacing with the C world. This interface is compatible with the UFFI
specification, which can be found in the web. We recommend you to grab
the documentation from this package and read it carefully. All examples
should run unmodified under ECL (Of course, you do not need to download
UFFI itself, as everything is already implemented in ECL.

   However, because ECL provides some additional functionality which
escapes the UFFI, and also for compatibility with older versions of the
ECL environment, we provide additional toplevel forms, which are listed
in the next section.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: The old C language interface,  Prev: The C language interface,  Up: The compiler

5.8 The old C language interface
================================

In this section we list several macros and toplevel forms which are
provided either for convenience or for compatibility with older
versions of ECL.  You should avoid using them when the UFFI-compatible
interface provides similar functionality.

   We define some terminology here which is used throughout this
Chapter. A _C-id_ is either a Lisp string consisting of a valid
C-language identifier, or a Lisp symbol whose print-name, with all its
alphabetic characters turned into lower case, is a valid C identifier.
Thus the symbol `foo' is equivalent to the string `"foo"' when used as
a C-id.  Similarly, a _C-expr_ is a string that may be regarded as a
C-language expression.  A _C-type_ is one of the Lisp symbols `:int,
:char, :float, :double,...' and `:object'.  Each corresponds to a data
type in the C language; `:object' is the type of Lisp object and other
C-types are primitive data types in C.

 -- Macro: defentry {FUNCTION PARAMETER-LIST C-FUNCTION}
     `defentry' defines a Lisp function whose body consists of the
     calling sequence to a C-language function. FUNCTION is the name of
     the Lisp function to be defined, and C-FUNCTION specifies the C
     function to be invoked. C-FUNCTION must be either a list `(TYPE
     C-ID)' or C-ID, where TYPE and C-ID are the type and the name of
     the C function. TYPE must be a C-type or the symbol `void' which
     means that the C function returns no value.  `(object C-ID)' may be
     abbreviated as C-ID.  PARAMETER-LIST is a list of C-types for the
     parameters of the C function.  For example, the following
     `defentry' form defines a Lisp function `tak' from which the C
     function `tak' above is called.


     (defentry tak (:int :int :int) (:int tak))

   The Lisp function `tak' defined by this `defentry' form requires
three arguments.  The arguments are converted to `int' values before
they are passed to the C function.  On return from the C function, the
returned `int' value is converted to a Lisp integer (actually a fixnum)
and this fixnum will be returned as the value of the Lisp function.
See below for type conversion between Lisp and the C language.

   A `defentry' form is treated in the above way only when it appears
as a top-level form of a Lisp source file.  Otherwise, a `defentry' form
expands to ().

 -- Macro: defla {name lambda-list {declaration | doc-string}*}
     When interpreted, `defla' is exactly the same as `defun'.  That is,
     `(defla NAME LAMBDA-LIST .  BODY)' expands to `(defun NAME
     LAMBDA-LIST .  BODY)'.  However, `defla' forms are completely
     ignored by the compiler; no C-language code will be generated for
     `defla' forms.  The primary use of `defla' is to define a Lisp
     function in two ways within a single Lisp source file; one in the
     C language and the other in Lisp.  `defla' is short for _DEF_ine
     _L_isp _A_lternative.

   Suppose you have a Lisp source file whose contents are:

     (use-package "FFI")

     ;;; C version of TAK.
     (Clines "

            int tak(x, y, z)
            int x, y, z;
            {      if (y >= x) return(z);
                    else return(tak(tak(x-1, y, z),
                                    tak(y-1, z, x),
                                    tak(z-1, x, y)));
            }
     "
     )

     ;;;  TAK calls the C function tak defined above.
     (defentry tak (:int :int :int) (:int tak))
     ;;;  The alternative Lisp definition of TAK.
     (defla tak (x y z)
        (if (>= y x)
            z
            (tak (tak (1- x) y z)
                 (tak (1- y) z x)
                 (tak (1- z) x y))))

   When this file is loaded into ECL, the interpreter uses the Lisp
version of the `tak' definition.  Once this file has been compiled, and
when the generated fasl file is loaded into ECL, a function call to
`tak' is actually the call to the C version of `tak'.

 -- Function: defCbody name args-types result-type C-expr
     The ECL compiler produces a function named NAME with as many
     arguments as ARG-TYPES.  The C-EXPR is an arbitrary C expression
     where the arguments to the function are denoted by `#_i_', where
     `_i_' is the integer corresponding to the argument position.  The
     ARGS-TYPES is the list of Common-Lisp types of the arguments to
     the function, while RESULT-TYPE is the Common-Lisp type of the
     result.  The actual arguments are coerced to the required types
     before executing the C-EXPR and the result is converted into a
     Lisp object.  `defCbody' is ignored by the interpreter.

   For example, the logical AND of two integers could be defined as:
     (defCbody logand (fixnum fixnum) fixnum "(#0) & (#1)")

 -- Function: definline {name args-types result-type C-expr}
     `definline' behaves exactly as `defCbody'.  Moreover, after a
     `definline' definition has been supplied, the ECL compiler will
     expand inline any call to function NAME into code corresponding to
     the C language expression C-EXPR, provided that the actual
     arguments are of the specified type.  If the actual arguments
     cannot be coerced to those types, the inline expansion is not
     performed.  `definline' is ignored by the interpreter.


   For example, a function to access the n-th byte of a string and
return it as an integer can be defined as follows:

     (definline aref-byte (string fixnum) fixnum
        "(#0)->ust.ust_self[#1]")

   The definitions of the C data structures used to represent \clisp
objects can be found in file `ecl.h' in the directory `"src/h"' of the
source distribution.

   ECL converts a Lisp object into a C-language data by using the
Common-Lisp function `coerce': For the C-type `int' (or `char'), the
object is first coerced to a Lisp integer and the least significant
32-bit (or 8-bit) field is used as the C `int' (or `char').  For the
C-type `float' (or `double'), the object is coerced to a single-float
(or a double-float) and this value is used as the `C float' (or
`double').  Conversion from a C data into a Lisp object is obvious: `C
char, int, float,' and `double' become the equivalent Lisp `character',
`fixnum', `single-float', and `double-float', respectively.

   Here we list the complete syntax of `Clines', `defentry',
`definline' and `defCbody' macro forms.


Clines-form:
        (Clines @{string@}*)

defentry-form:
        (defentry symbol (@{C-type@}*)
                  @{C-function-name | (@{C-type | void@} C-function-name)@})

defCbody-form:
        (defCbody symbol (@{type@}*) type C-expr)

definline-form:
        (defCbody symbol (@{type@}*) type C-expr)

C-function-name:
        @{ string | symbol @}
C-expr:
	string
C-type:
        @{ object | int | char | float | double @}


File: ecldev.info,  Node: The Garbage Collector,  Next: Porting ECL,  Prev: The compiler,  Up: Top

6 The Garbage Collector
***********************

Using ECL in existing application sometimes involves keeping Lisp
objects where the garbage collector normally cannot see them.


File: ecldev.info,  Node: Porting ECL,  Prev: The Garbage Collector,  Up: Top

7 Porting ECL
*************

To port ECL to a new architecture, the following steps are required:

  1. Ensure that the GNU Multiprecision library supports this machine.

  2. Ensure that the Boehm-Weiser garbage collector is supported by that
     architecture. Alternatively, port ECL's own garbage collector
     `src/c/alloc.d' and `src/c/gbc.d' to that platform.

  3. Fix `src/aclocal.in', `src/h/ecl.h' and `src/h/ecl-cmp.h' so that
     they supply flags for the new host machine.

  4. Fix the machine dependent code in `src/c/'. The most critical
     parts are in the `unix*' and `thread*' files.

  5. Compile as in any other platform.

  6. Run the tests and compare to the results of other platforms.



Tag Table:
Node: Top466
Node: Introduction1375
Node: Building programs2549
Node: What can ECL do?2977
Node: Compiling files5248
Node: Building standalone executables6772
Node: Building libraries8505
Node: File names10118
Node: Compiler examples11616
Node: Lisp objects17050
Node: Objects representation17516
Node: Constructing objects22017
Node: Integers23338
Node: Characters25657
Node: Arrays27121
Node: Strings30665
Node: Bitvectors31988
Node: Streams32110
Node: Structures32229
Node: Instances32353
Node: Bytecodes32479
Node: The interpreter34426
Node: ECL stacks34670
Node: Procedure Call Conventions35253
Node: The lexical environment37569
Node: The interpreter stack38168
Node: The compiler42007
Node: The compiler translates to C42431
Node: The compiler mimics human C programmer44438
Node: Implementation of Compiled Closures46589
Node: Use of Declarations to Improve Efficiency49734
Node: Inspecting generated C code51111
Node: Embedding C code52143
Node: The C language interface56444
Node: The old C language interface57364
Node: The Garbage Collector64264
Node: Porting ECL64544

End Tag Table
