This is ../info/eintr, produced by makeinfo version 4.11 from
emacs-lisp-intro.texi.

INFO-DIR-SECTION Emacs
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Emacs Lisp Intro: (eintr).
                          A simple introduction to Emacs Lisp programming.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

   This is an `Introduction to Programming in Emacs Lisp', for people
who are not programmers.

   Edition 3.07, 9 November 2006

   Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001,
2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

   Published by the:

     GNU Press,                          Website: http://www.gnupress.org
     a division of the                   General: press@gnu.org
     Free Software Foundation, Inc.      Orders:  sales@gnu.org
     51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor     Tel: +1 (617) 542-5942
     Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA           Fax: +1 (617) 542-2652


   ISBN 1-882114-43-4

   Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; there
being no Invariant Section, with the Front-Cover Texts being "A GNU
Manual", and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a) below.  A copy of the
license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation
License".

   (a) The FSF's Back-Cover Text is: "You have freedom to copy and
modify this GNU Manual, like GNU software.  Copies published by the
Free Software Foundation raise funds for GNU development."


File: eintr,  Node: Digression into C,  Next: defvar,  Prev: copy-region-as-kill,  Up: Cutting & Storing Text

8.4 Digression into C
=====================

The `copy-region-as-kill' function (*note `copy-region-as-kill':
copy-region-as-kill.) uses the `filter-buffer-substring' function,
which in turn uses the `delete-and-extract-region' function.  It
removes the contents of a region and you cannot get them back.

   Unlike the other code discussed here, the
`delete-and-extract-region' function is not written in Emacs Lisp; it
is written in C and is one of the primitives of the GNU Emacs system.
Since it is very simple, I will digress briefly from Lisp and describe
it here.

   Like many of the other Emacs primitives, `delete-and-extract-region'
is written as an instance of a C macro, a macro being a template for
code.  The complete macro looks like this:

     DEFUN ("buffer-substring-no-properties", Fbuffer_substring_no_properties,
            Sbuffer_substring_no_properties, 2, 2, 0,
            doc: /* Return the characters of part of the buffer,
     without the text properties.
     The two arguments START and END are character positions;
     they can be in either order.  */)
          (start, end)
          Lisp_Object start, end;
     {
       register int b, e;

       validate_region (&start, &end);
       b = XINT (start);
       e = XINT (end);

       return make_buffer_string (b, e, 0);
     }

   Without going into the details of the macro writing process, let me
point out that this macro starts with the word `DEFUN'.  The word
`DEFUN' was chosen since the code serves the same purpose as `defun'
does in Lisp.  (The `DEFUN' C macro is defined in `emacs/src/lisp.h'.)

   The word `DEFUN' is followed by seven parts inside of parentheses:

   * The first part is the name given to the function in Lisp,
     `delete-and-extract-region'.

   * The second part is the name of the function in C,
     `Fdelete_and_extract_region'.  By convention, it starts with `F'.
     Since C does not use hyphens in names, underscores are used
     instead.

   * The third part is the name for the C constant structure that
     records information on this function for internal use.  It is the
     name of the function in C but begins with an `S' instead of an `F'.

   * The fourth and fifth parts specify the minimum and maximum number
     of arguments the function can have.  This function demands exactly
     2 arguments.

   * The sixth part is nearly like the argument that follows the
     `interactive' declaration in a function written in Lisp: a letter
     followed, perhaps, by a prompt.  The only difference from the Lisp
     is when the macro is called with no arguments.  Then you write a
     `0' (which is a `null string'), as in this macro.

     If you were to specify arguments, you would place them between
     quotation marks.  The C macro for `goto-char' includes `"NGoto
     char: "' in this position to indicate that the function expects a
     raw prefix, in this case, a numerical location in a buffer, and
     provides a prompt.

   * The seventh part is a documentation string, just like the one for a
     function written in Emacs Lisp, except that every newline must be
     written explicitly as `\n' followed by a backslash and carriage
     return.

     Thus, the first two lines of documentation for  `goto-char' are
     written like this:

            "Set point to POSITION, a number or marker.\n\
          Beginning of buffer is position (point-min), end is (point-max)."

   In a C macro, the formal parameters come next, with a statement of
what kind of object they are, followed by what might be called the
`body' of the macro.  For `delete-and-extract-region' the `body'
consists of the following four lines:

     validate_region (&start, &end);
     if (XINT (start) == XINT (end))
       return build_string ("");
     return del_range_1 (XINT (start), XINT (end), 1, 1);

   The   `validate_region' function checks whether the values passed as
the beginning and end of the region are the proper type and are within
range.  If the beginning and end positions are the same, then return
and empty string.

   The `del_range_1' function actually deletes the text.  It is a
complex function we will not look into.  It updates the buffer and does
other things.  However, it is worth looking at the two arguments passed
to `del_range'.  These are `XINT (start)' and `XINT (end)'.

   As far as the C language is concerned, `start' and `end' are two
integers that mark the beginning and end of the region to be deleted(1).

   In early versions of Emacs, these two numbers were thirty-two bits
long, but the code is slowly being generalized to handle other lengths.
Three of the available bits are used to specify the type of
information; the remaining bits are used as `content'.

   `XINT' is a C macro that extracts the relevant number from the
longer collection of bits; the three other bits are discarded.

   The command in `delete-and-extract-region' looks like this:

     del_range_1 (XINT (start), XINT (end), 1, 1);

It deletes the region between the beginning position, `start', and the
ending position, `end'.

   From the point of view of the person writing Lisp, Emacs is all very
simple; but hidden underneath is a great deal of complexity to make it
all work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) More precisely, and requiring more expert knowledge to
understand, the two integers are of type `Lisp_Object', which can also
be a C union instead of an integer type.


File: eintr,  Node: defvar,  Next: cons & search-fwd Review,  Prev: Digression into C,  Up: Cutting & Storing Text

8.5 Initializing a Variable with `defvar'
=========================================

The `copy-region-as-kill' function is written in Emacs Lisp.  Two
functions within it, `kill-append' and `kill-new', copy a region in a
buffer and save it in a variable called the `kill-ring'.  This section
describes how the `kill-ring' variable is created and initialized using
the `defvar' special form.

   (Again we note that the term `kill-ring' is a misnomer.  The text
that is clipped out of the buffer can be brought back; it is not a ring
of corpses, but a ring of resurrectable text.)

   In Emacs Lisp, a variable such as the `kill-ring' is created and
given an initial value by using the `defvar' special form.  The name
comes from "define variable".

   The `defvar' special form is similar to `setq' in that it sets the
value of a variable.  It is unlike `setq' in two ways: first, it only
sets the value of the variable if the variable does not already have a
value.  If the variable already has a value, `defvar' does not override
the existing value.  Second, `defvar' has a documentation string.

   (Another special form, `defcustom', is designed for variables that
people customize.  It has more features than `defvar'.  (*Note Setting
Variables with `defcustom': defcustom.)

* Menu:

* See variable current value::
* defvar and asterisk::


File: eintr,  Node: See variable current value,  Next: defvar and asterisk,  Prev: defvar,  Up: defvar

Seeing the Current Value of a Variable
--------------------------------------

   You can see the current value of a variable, any variable, by using
the `describe-variable' function, which is usually invoked by typing
`C-h v'.  If you type `C-h v' and then `kill-ring' (followed by <RET>)
when prompted, you will see what is in your current kill ring--this may
be quite a lot!  Conversely, if you have been doing nothing this Emacs
session except read this document, you may have nothing in it.  Also,
you will see the documentation for `kill-ring':

     Documentation:
     List of killed text sequences.
     Since the kill ring is supposed to interact nicely with cut-and-paste
     facilities offered by window systems, use of this variable should
     interact nicely with `interprogram-cut-function' and
     `interprogram-paste-function'.  The functions `kill-new',
     `kill-append', and `current-kill' are supposed to implement this
     interaction; you may want to use them instead of manipulating the kill
     ring directly.

   The kill ring is defined by a `defvar' in the following way:

     (defvar kill-ring nil
       "List of killed text sequences.
     ...")

In this variable definition, the variable is given an initial value of
`nil', which makes sense, since if you have saved nothing, you want
nothing back if you give a `yank' command.  The documentation string is
written just like the documentation string of a `defun'.  As with the
documentation string of the `defun', the first line of the
documentation should be a complete sentence, since some commands, like
`apropos', print only the first line of documentation.  Succeeding
lines should not be indented; otherwise they look odd when you use `C-h
v' (`describe-variable').


File: eintr,  Node: defvar and asterisk,  Prev: See variable current value,  Up: defvar

8.5.1 `defvar' and an asterisk
------------------------------

In the past, Emacs used the `defvar' special form both for internal
variables that you would not expect a user to change and for variables
that you do expect a user to change.  Although you can still use
`defvar' for user customizable variables, please use `defcustom'
instead, since that special form provides a path into the Customization
commands.  (*Note Specifying Variables using `defcustom': defcustom.)

   When you specified a variable using the `defvar' special form, you
could distinguish a readily settable variable from others by typing an
asterisk, `*', in the first column of its documentation string.  For
example:

     (defvar shell-command-default-error-buffer nil
       "*Buffer name for `shell-command' ... error output.
     ... ")

You could (and still can) use the `set-variable' command to change the
value of `shell-command-default-error-buffer' temporarily.  However,
options set using `set-variable' are set only for the duration of your
editing session.  The new values are not saved between sessions.  Each
time Emacs starts, it reads the original value, unless you change the
value within your `.emacs' file, either by setting it manually or by
using `customize'.  *Note Your `.emacs' File: Emacs Initialization.

   For me, the major use of the `set-variable' command is to suggest
variables that I might want to set in my `.emacs' file.  There are now
more than 700 such variables -- far too many to remember readily.
Fortunately, you can press <TAB> after calling the `M-x set-variable'
command to see the list of variables.  (*Note Examining and Setting
Variables: (emacs)Examining.)


File: eintr,  Node: cons & search-fwd Review,  Next: search Exercises,  Prev: defvar,  Up: Cutting & Storing Text

8.6 Review
==========

Here is a brief summary of some recently introduced functions.

`car'
`cdr'
     `car' returns the first element of a list; `cdr' returns the
     second and subsequent elements of a list.

     For example:

          (car '(1 2 3 4 5 6 7))
               => 1
          (cdr '(1 2 3 4 5 6 7))
               => (2 3 4 5 6 7)

`cons'
     `cons' constructs a list by prepending its first argument to its
     second argument.

     For example:

          (cons 1 '(2 3 4))
               => (1 2 3 4)

`funcall'
     `funcall' evaluates its first argument as a function.  It passes
     its remaining arguments to its first argument.

`nthcdr'
     Return the result of taking CDR `n' times on a list.  The `rest of
     the rest', as it were.

     For example:

          (nthcdr 3 '(1 2 3 4 5 6 7))
               => (4 5 6 7)

`setcar'
`setcdr'
     `setcar' changes the first element of a list; `setcdr' changes the
     second and subsequent elements of a list.

     For example:

          (setq triple '(1 2 3))

          (setcar triple '37)

          triple
               => (37 2 3)

          (setcdr triple '("foo" "bar"))

          triple
               => (37 "foo" "bar")

`progn'
     Evaluate each argument in sequence and then return the value of the
     last.

     For example:

          (progn 1 2 3 4)
               => 4

`save-restriction'
     Record whatever narrowing is in effect in the current buffer, if
     any, and restore that narrowing after evaluating the arguments.

`search-forward'
     Search for a string, and if the string is found, move point.  With
     a regular expression, use the similar `re-search-forward'.  (*Note
     Regular Expression Searches: Regexp Search, for an explanation of
     regular expression patterns and searches.)

     `search-forward' and `re-search-forward' take four arguments:

       1. The string or regular expression to search for.

       2. Optionally, the limit of the search.

       3. Optionally, what to do if the search fails, return `nil' or an
          error message.

       4. Optionally, how many times to repeat the search; if negative,
          the search goes backwards.

`kill-region'
`delete-and-extract-region'
`copy-region-as-kill'
     `kill-region' cuts the text between point and mark from the buffer
     and stores that text in the kill ring, so you can get it back by
     yanking.

     `copy-region-as-kill' copies the text between point and mark into
     the kill ring, from which you can get it by yanking.  The function
     does not cut or remove the text from the buffer.

   `delete-and-extract-region' removes the text between point and mark
from the buffer and throws it away.  You cannot get it back.  (This is
not an interactive command.)


File: eintr,  Node: search Exercises,  Prev: cons & search-fwd Review,  Up: Cutting & Storing Text

8.7 Searching Exercises
=======================

   * Write an interactive function that searches for a string.  If the
     search finds the string, leave point after it and display a message
     that says "Found!".  (Do not use `search-forward' for the name of
     this function; if you do, you will overwrite the existing version
     of `search-forward' that comes with Emacs.  Use a name such as
     `test-search' instead.)

   * Write a function that prints the third element of the kill ring in
     the echo area, if any; if the kill ring does not contain a third
     element, print an appropriate message.


File: eintr,  Node: List Implementation,  Next: Yanking,  Prev: Cutting & Storing Text,  Up: Top

9 How Lists are Implemented
***************************

In Lisp, atoms are recorded in a straightforward fashion; if the
implementation is not straightforward in practice, it is, nonetheless,
straightforward in theory.  The atom `rose', for example, is recorded
as the four contiguous letters `r', `o', `s', `e'.  A list, on the
other hand, is kept differently.  The mechanism is equally simple, but
it takes a moment to get used to the idea.  A list is kept using a
series of pairs of pointers.  In the series, the first pointer in each
pair points to an atom or to another list, and the second pointer in
each pair points to the next pair, or to the symbol `nil', which marks
the end of the list.

   A pointer itself is quite simply the electronic address of what is
pointed to.  Hence, a list is kept as a series of electronic addresses.

* Menu:

* Lists diagrammed::
* Symbols as Chest::            Exploring a powerful metaphor.
* List Exercise::


File: eintr,  Node: Lists diagrammed,  Next: Symbols as Chest,  Prev: List Implementation,  Up: List Implementation

Lists diagrammed
================

   For example, the list `(rose violet buttercup)' has three elements,
`rose', `violet', and `buttercup'.  In the computer, the electronic
address of `rose' is recorded in a segment of computer memory along
with the address that gives the electronic address of where the atom
`violet' is located; and that address (the one that tells where
`violet' is located) is kept along with an address that tells where the
address for the atom `buttercup' is located.

   This sounds more complicated than it is and is easier seen in a
diagram:

         ___ ___      ___ ___      ___ ___
        |___|___|--> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil
          |            |            |
          |            |            |
           --> rose     --> violet   --> buttercup



In the diagram, each box represents a word of computer memory that
holds a Lisp object, usually in the form of a memory address.  The
boxes, i.e. the addresses, are in pairs.  Each arrow points to what the
address is the address of, either an atom or another pair of addresses.
The first box is the electronic address of `rose' and the arrow points
to `rose'; the second box is the address of the next pair of boxes, the
first part of which is the address of `violet' and the second part of
which is the address of the next pair.  The very last box points to the
symbol `nil', which marks the end of the list.

   When a variable is set to a list with a function such as `setq', it
stores the address of the first box in the variable.  Thus, evaluation
of the expression

     (setq bouquet '(rose violet buttercup))

creates a situation like this:

     bouquet
          |
          |     ___ ___      ___ ___      ___ ___
           --> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil
                 |            |            |
                 |            |            |
                  --> rose     --> violet   --> buttercup



In this example, the symbol `bouquet' holds the address of the first
pair of boxes.

   This same list can be illustrated in a different sort of box notation
like this:

     bouquet
      |
      |    --------------       ---------------       ----------------
      |   | car   | cdr  |     | car    | cdr  |     | car     | cdr  |
       -->| rose  |   o------->| violet |   o------->| butter- |  nil |
          |       |      |     |        |      |     | cup     |      |
           --------------       ---------------       ----------------



   (Symbols consist of more than pairs of addresses, but the structure
of a symbol is made up of addresses.  Indeed, the symbol `bouquet'
consists of a group of address-boxes, one of which is the address of
the printed word `bouquet', a second of which is the address of a
function definition attached to the symbol, if any, a third of which is
the address of the first pair of address-boxes for the list `(rose
violet buttercup)', and so on.  Here we are showing that the symbol's
third address-box points to the first pair of address-boxes for the
list.)

   If a symbol is set to the CDR of a list, the list itself is not
changed; the symbol simply has an address further down the list.  (In
the jargon, CAR and CDR are `non-destructive'.)  Thus, evaluation of
the following expression

     (setq flowers (cdr bouquet))

produces this:


     bouquet        flowers
       |              |
       |     ___ ___  |     ___ ___      ___ ___
        --> |   |   |  --> |   |   |    |   |   |
            |___|___|----> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil
              |              |            |
              |              |            |
               --> rose       --> violet   --> buttercup




The value of `flowers' is `(violet buttercup)', which is to say, the
symbol `flowers' holds the address of the pair of address-boxes, the
first of which holds the address of `violet', and the second of which
holds the address of `buttercup'.

   A pair of address-boxes is called a "cons cell" or "dotted pair".
*Note Cons Cell and List Types: (elisp)Cons Cell Type, and *note Dotted
Pair Notation: (elisp)Dotted Pair Notation, for more information about
cons cells and dotted pairs.

   The function `cons' adds a new pair of addresses to the front of a
series of addresses like that shown above.  For example, evaluating the
expression

     (setq bouquet (cons 'lily bouquet))

produces:


     bouquet                       flowers
       |                             |
       |     ___ ___        ___ ___  |     ___ ___       ___ ___
        --> |   |   |      |   |   |  --> |   |   |     |   |   |
            |___|___|----> |___|___|----> |___|___|---->|___|___|--> nil
              |              |              |             |
              |              |              |             |
               --> lily      --> rose       --> violet    --> buttercup




However, this does not change the value of the symbol `flowers', as you
can see by evaluating the following,

     (eq (cdr (cdr bouquet)) flowers)

which returns `t' for true.

   Until it is reset, `flowers' still has the value `(violet
buttercup)'; that is, it has the address of the cons cell whose first
address is of `violet'.  Also, this does not alter any of the
pre-existing cons cells; they are all still there.

   Thus, in Lisp, to get the CDR of a list, you just get the address of
the next cons cell in the series; to get the CAR of a list, you get the
address of the first element of the list; to `cons' a new element on a
list, you add a new cons cell to the front of the list.  That is all
there is to it!  The underlying structure of Lisp is brilliantly simple!

   And what does the last address in a series of cons cells refer to?
It is the address of the empty list, of `nil'.

   In summary, when a Lisp variable is set to a value, it is provided
with the address of the list to which the variable refers.


File: eintr,  Node: Symbols as Chest,  Next: List Exercise,  Prev: Lists diagrammed,  Up: List Implementation

9.1 Symbols as a Chest of Drawers
=================================

In an earlier section, I suggested that you might imagine a symbol as
being a chest of drawers.  The function definition is put in one
drawer, the value in another, and so on.  What is put in the drawer
holding the value can be changed without affecting the contents of the
drawer holding the function definition, and vice-verse.

   Actually, what is put in each drawer is the address of the value or
function definition.  It is as if you found an old chest in the attic,
and in one of its drawers you found a map giving you directions to
where the buried treasure lies.

   (In addition to its name, symbol definition, and variable value, a
symbol has a `drawer' for a "property list" which can be used to record
other information.  Property lists are not discussed here; see *note
Property Lists: (elisp)Property Lists.)

   Here is a fanciful representation:


                 Chest of Drawers            Contents of Drawers

                 __   o0O0o   __
               /                 \
              ---------------------
             |    directions to    |            [map to]
             |     symbol name     |             bouquet
             |                     |
             +---------------------+
             |    directions to    |
             |  symbol definition  |             [none]
             |                     |
             +---------------------+
             |    directions to    |            [map to]
             |    variable value   |             (rose violet buttercup)
             |                     |
             +---------------------+
             |    directions to    |
             |    property list    |             [not described here]
             |                     |
             +---------------------+
             |/                   \|





File: eintr,  Node: List Exercise,  Prev: Symbols as Chest,  Up: List Implementation

9.2 Exercise
============

Set `flowers' to `violet' and `buttercup'.  Cons two more flowers on to
this list and set this new list to `more-flowers'.  Set the CAR of
`flowers' to a fish.  What does the `more-flowers' list now contain?


File: eintr,  Node: Yanking,  Next: Loops & Recursion,  Prev: List Implementation,  Up: Top

10 Yanking Text Back
********************

Whenever you cut text out of a buffer with a `kill' command in GNU
Emacs, you can bring it back with a `yank' command.  The text that is
cut out of the buffer is put in the kill ring and the yank commands
insert the appropriate contents of the kill ring back into a buffer
(not necessarily the original buffer).

   A simple `C-y' (`yank') command inserts the first item from the kill
ring into the current buffer.  If the `C-y' command is followed
immediately by `M-y', the first element is replaced by the second
element.  Successive `M-y' commands replace the second element with the
third, fourth, or fifth element, and so on.  When the last element in
the kill ring is reached, it is replaced by the first element and the
cycle is repeated.  (Thus the kill ring is called a `ring' rather than
just a `list'.  However, the actual data structure that holds the text
is a list.  *Note Handling the Kill Ring: Kill Ring, for the details of
how the list is handled as a ring.)

* Menu:

* Kill Ring Overview::
* kill-ring-yank-pointer::      The kill ring is a list.
* yank nthcdr Exercises::       The `kill-ring-yank-pointer' variable.


File: eintr,  Node: Kill Ring Overview,  Next: kill-ring-yank-pointer,  Prev: Yanking,  Up: Yanking

10.1 Kill Ring Overview
=======================

The kill ring is a list of textual strings.  This is what it looks like:

     ("some text" "a different piece of text" "yet more text")

   If this were the contents of my kill ring and I pressed `C-y', the
string of characters saying `some text' would be inserted in this
buffer where my cursor is located.

   The `yank' command is also used for duplicating text by copying it.
The copied text is not cut from the buffer, but a copy of it is put on
the kill ring and is inserted by yanking it back.

   Three functions are used for bringing text back from the kill ring:
`yank', which is usually bound to `C-y'; `yank-pop', which is usually
bound to `M-y'; and `rotate-yank-pointer', which is used by the two
other functions.

   These functions refer to the kill ring through a variable called the
`kill-ring-yank-pointer'.  Indeed, the insertion code for both the
`yank' and `yank-pop' functions is:

     (insert (car kill-ring-yank-pointer))

(Well, no more.  In GNU Emacs 22, the function has been replaced by
`insert-for-yank' which calls `insert-for-yank-1' repetitively for each
`yank-handler' segment.  In turn, `insert-for-yank-1' strips text
properties from the inserted text according to
`yank-excluded-properties'.  Otherwise, it is just like `insert'.  We
will stick with plain `insert' since it is easier to understand.)

   To begin to understand how `yank' and `yank-pop' work, it is first
necessary to look at the `kill-ring-yank-pointer' variable.


File: eintr,  Node: kill-ring-yank-pointer,  Next: yank nthcdr Exercises,  Prev: Kill Ring Overview,  Up: Yanking

10.2 The `kill-ring-yank-pointer' Variable
==========================================

`kill-ring-yank-pointer' is a variable, just as `kill-ring' is a
variable.  It points to something by being bound to the value of what
it points to, like any other Lisp variable.

   Thus, if the value of the kill ring is:

     ("some text" "a different piece of text" "yet more text")

and the `kill-ring-yank-pointer' points to the second clause, the value
of `kill-ring-yank-pointer' is:

     ("a different piece of text" "yet more text")

   As explained in the previous chapter (*note List Implementation::),
the computer does not keep two different copies of the text being
pointed to by both the `kill-ring' and the `kill-ring-yank-pointer'.
The words "a different piece of text" and "yet more text" are not
duplicated.  Instead, the two Lisp variables point to the same pieces of
text.  Here is a diagram:

     kill-ring     kill-ring-yank-pointer
         |               |
         |      ___ ___  |     ___ ___      ___ ___
          ---> |   |   |  --> |   |   |    |   |   |
               |___|___|----> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil
                 |              |            |
                 |              |            |
                 |              |             --> "yet more text"
                 |              |
                 |               --> "a different piece of text"
                 |
                  --> "some text"




   Both the variable `kill-ring' and the variable
`kill-ring-yank-pointer' are pointers.  But the kill ring itself is
usually described as if it were actually what it is composed of.  The
`kill-ring' is spoken of as if it were the list rather than that it
points to the list.  Conversely, the `kill-ring-yank-pointer' is spoken
of as pointing to a list.

   These two ways of talking about the same thing sound confusing at
first but make sense on reflection.  The kill ring is generally thought
of as the complete structure of data that holds the information of what
has recently been cut out of the Emacs buffers.  The
`kill-ring-yank-pointer' on the other hand, serves to indicate--that
is, to `point to'--that part of the kill ring of which the first
element (the CAR) will be inserted.


File: eintr,  Node: yank nthcdr Exercises,  Prev: kill-ring-yank-pointer,  Up: Yanking

10.3 Exercises with `yank' and `nthcdr'
=======================================

   * Using `C-h v' (`describe-variable'), look at the value of your
     kill ring.  Add several items to your kill ring; look at its value
     again.  Using `M-y' (`yank-pop)', move all the way around the kill
     ring.  How many items were in your kill ring?  Find the value of
     `kill-ring-max'.  Was your kill ring full, or could you have kept
     more blocks of text within it?

   * Using `nthcdr' and `car', construct a series of expressions to
     return the first, second, third, and fourth elements of a list.


File: eintr,  Node: Loops & Recursion,  Next: Regexp Search,  Prev: Yanking,  Up: Top

11 Loops and Recursion
**********************

Emacs Lisp has two primary ways to cause an expression, or a series of
expressions, to be evaluated repeatedly: one uses a `while' loop, and
the other uses "recursion".

   Repetition can be very valuable.  For example, to move forward four
sentences, you need only write a program that will move forward one
sentence and then repeat the process four times.  Since a computer does
not get bored or tired, such repetitive action does not have the
deleterious effects that excessive or the wrong kinds of repetition can
have on humans.

   People mostly write Emacs Lisp functions using `while' loops and
their kin; but you can use recursion, which provides a very powerful
way to think about and then to solve problems(1).

* Menu:

* while::                       Causing a stretch of code to repeat.
* dolist dotimes::
* Recursion::                   Causing a function to call itself.
* Looping exercise::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) You can write recursive functions to be frugal or wasteful of
mental or computer resources; as it happens, methods that people find
easy--that are frugal of `mental resources'--sometimes use considerable
computer resources.  Emacs was designed to run on machines that we now
consider limited and its default settings are conservative.  You may
want to increase the values of `max-specpdl-size' and
`max-lisp-eval-depth'.  In my `.emacs' file, I set them to 15 and 30
times their default value.


File: eintr,  Node: while,  Next: dolist dotimes,  Prev: Loops & Recursion,  Up: Loops & Recursion

11.1 `while'
============

The `while' special form tests whether the value returned by evaluating
its first argument is true or false.  This is similar to what the Lisp
interpreter does with an `if'; what the interpreter does next, however,
is different.

   In a `while' expression, if the value returned by evaluating the
first argument is false, the Lisp interpreter skips the rest of the
expression (the "body" of the expression) and does not evaluate it.
However, if the value is true, the Lisp interpreter evaluates the body
of the expression and then again tests whether the first argument to
`while' is true or false.  If the value returned by evaluating the
first argument is again true, the Lisp interpreter again evaluates the
body of the expression.

   The template for a `while' expression looks like this:

     (while TRUE-OR-FALSE-TEST
       BODY...)

* Menu:

* Looping with while::          Repeat so long as test returns true.
* Loop Example::                A `while' loop that uses a list.
* print-elements-of-list::      Uses `while', `car', `cdr'.
* Incrementing Loop::           A loop with an incrementing counter.
* Incrementing Loop Details::
* Decrementing Loop::           A loop with a decrementing counter.


File: eintr,  Node: Looping with while,  Next: Loop Example,  Prev: while,  Up: while

Looping with `while'
--------------------

   So long as the true-or-false-test of the `while' expression returns
a true value when it is evaluated, the body is repeatedly evaluated.
This process is called a loop since the Lisp interpreter repeats the
same thing again and again, like an airplane doing a loop.  When the
result of evaluating the true-or-false-test is false, the Lisp
interpreter does not evaluate the rest of the `while' expression and
`exits the loop'.

   Clearly, if the value returned by evaluating the first argument to
`while' is always true, the body following will be evaluated again and
again ... and again ... forever.  Conversely, if the value returned is
never true, the expressions in the body will never be evaluated.  The
craft of writing a `while' loop consists of choosing a mechanism such
that the true-or-false-test returns true just the number of times that
you want the subsequent expressions to be evaluated, and then have the
test return false.

   The value returned by evaluating a `while' is the value of the
true-or-false-test.  An interesting consequence of this is that a
`while' loop that evaluates without error will return `nil' or false
regardless of whether it has looped 1 or 100 times or none at all.  A
`while' expression that evaluates successfully never returns a true
value!  What this means is that `while' is always evaluated for its
side effects, which is to say, the consequences of evaluating the
expressions within the body of the `while' loop.  This makes sense.  It
is not the mere act of looping that is desired, but the consequences of
what happens when the expressions in the loop are repeatedly evaluated.


File: eintr,  Node: Loop Example,  Next: print-elements-of-list,  Prev: Looping with while,  Up: while

11.1.1 A `while' Loop and a List
--------------------------------

A common way to control a `while' loop is to test whether a list has
any elements.  If it does, the loop is repeated; but if it does not,
the repetition is ended.  Since this is an important technique, we will
create a short example to illustrate it.

   A simple way to test whether a list has elements is to evaluate the
list: if it has no elements, it is an empty list and will return the
empty list, `()', which is a synonym for `nil' or false.  On the other
hand, a list with elements will return those elements when it is
evaluated.  Since Emacs Lisp considers as true any value that is not
`nil', a list that returns elements will test true in a `while' loop.

   For example, you can set the variable `empty-list' to `nil' by
evaluating the following `setq' expression:

     (setq empty-list ())

After evaluating the `setq' expression, you can evaluate the variable
`empty-list' in the usual way, by placing the cursor after the symbol
and typing `C-x C-e'; `nil' will appear in your echo area:

     empty-list

   On the other hand, if you set a variable to be a list with elements,
the list will appear when you evaluate the variable, as you can see by
evaluating the following two expressions:

     (setq animals '(gazelle giraffe lion tiger))

     animals

   Thus, to create a `while' loop that tests whether there are any
items in the list `animals', the first part of the loop will be written
like this:

     (while animals
            ...

When the `while' tests its first argument, the variable `animals' is
evaluated.  It returns a list.  So long as the list has elements, the
`while' considers the results of the test to be true; but when the list
is empty, it considers the results of the test to be false.

   To prevent the `while' loop from running forever, some mechanism
needs to be provided to empty the list eventually.  An oft-used
technique is to have one of the subsequent forms in the `while'
expression set the value of the list to be the CDR of the list.  Each
time the `cdr' function is evaluated, the list will be made shorter,
until eventually only the empty list will be left.  At this point, the
test of the `while' loop will return false, and the arguments to the
`while' will no longer be evaluated.

   For example, the list of animals bound to the variable `animals' can
be set to be the CDR of the original list with the following expression:

     (setq animals (cdr animals))

If you have evaluated the previous expressions and then evaluate this
expression, you will see `(giraffe lion tiger)' appear in the echo
area.  If you evaluate the expression again, `(lion tiger)' will appear
in the echo area.  If you evaluate it again and yet again, `(tiger)'
appears and then the empty list, shown by `nil'.

   A template for a `while' loop that uses the `cdr' function
repeatedly to cause the true-or-false-test eventually to test false
looks like this:

     (while TEST-WHETHER-LIST-IS-EMPTY
       BODY...
       SET-LIST-TO-CDR-OF-LIST)

   This test and use of `cdr' can be put together in a function that
goes through a list and prints each element of the list on a line of its
own.


File: eintr,  Node: print-elements-of-list,  Next: Incrementing Loop,  Prev: Loop Example,  Up: while

11.1.2 An Example: `print-elements-of-list'
-------------------------------------------

The `print-elements-of-list' function illustrates a `while' loop with a
list.

   The function requires several lines for its output.  If you are
reading this in a recent instance of GNU Emacs, you can evaluate the
following expression inside of Info, as usual.

   If you are using an earlier version of Emacs, you need to copy the
necessary expressions to your `*scratch*' buffer and evaluate them
there.  This is because the echo area had only one line in the earlier
versions.

   You can copy the expressions by marking the beginning of the region
with `C-<SPC>' (`set-mark-command'), moving the cursor to the end of
the region and then copying the region using `M-w' (`kill-ring-save',
which calls `copy-region-as-kill' and then provides visual feedback).
In the `*scratch*' buffer, you can yank the expressions back by typing
`C-y' (`yank').

   After you have copied the expressions to the `*scratch*' buffer,
evaluate each expression in turn.  Be sure to evaluate the last
expression, `(print-elements-of-list animals)', by typing `C-u C-x
C-e', that is, by giving an argument to `eval-last-sexp'.  This will
cause the result of the evaluation to be printed in the `*scratch*'
buffer instead of being printed in the echo area.  (Otherwise you will
see something like this in your echo area:
`^Jgazelle^J^Jgiraffe^J^Jlion^J^Jtiger^Jnil', in which each `^J' stands
for a `newline'.)

   In a recent instance of GNU Emacs, you can evaluate these expressions
directly in the Info buffer, and the echo area will grow to show the
results.

     (setq animals '(gazelle giraffe lion tiger))

     (defun print-elements-of-list (list)
       "Print each element of LIST on a line of its own."
       (while list
         (print (car list))
         (setq list (cdr list))))

     (print-elements-of-list animals)

When you evaluate the three expressions in sequence, you will see this:

     gazelle

     giraffe

     lion

     tiger
     nil

   Each element of the list is printed on a line of its own (that is
what the function `print' does) and then the value returned by the
function is printed.  Since the last expression in the function is the
`while' loop, and since `while' loops always return `nil', a `nil' is
printed after the last element of the list.


File: eintr,  Node: Incrementing Loop,  Next: Incrementing Loop Details,  Prev: print-elements-of-list,  Up: while

11.1.3 A Loop with an Incrementing Counter
------------------------------------------

A loop is not useful unless it stops when it ought.  Besides
controlling a loop with a list, a common way of stopping a loop is to
write the first argument as a test that returns false when the correct
number of repetitions are complete.  This means that the loop must have
a counter--an expression that counts how many times the loop repeats
itself.


File: eintr,  Node: Incrementing Loop Details,  Next: Decrementing Loop,  Prev: Incrementing Loop,  Up: while

Details of an Incrementing Loop
-------------------------------

   The test for a loop with an incrementing counter can be an expression
such as `(< count desired-number)' which returns `t' for true if the
value of `count' is less than the `desired-number' of repetitions and
`nil' for false if the value of `count' is equal to or is greater than
the `desired-number'.  The expression that increments the count can be
a simple `setq' such as `(setq count (1+ count))', where `1+' is a
built-in function in Emacs Lisp that adds 1 to its argument.  (The
expression `(1+ count)' has the same result as `(+ count 1)', but is
easier for a human to read.)

   The template for a `while' loop controlled by an incrementing
counter looks like this:

     SET-COUNT-TO-INITIAL-VALUE
     (while (< count desired-number)         ; true-or-false-test
       BODY...
       (setq count (1+ count)))              ; incrementer

Note that you need to set the initial value of `count'; usually it is
set to 1.

* Menu:

* Incrementing Example::        Counting pebbles in a triangle.
* Inc Example parts::           The parts of the function definition.
* Inc Example altogether::      Putting the function definition together.


File: eintr,  Node: Incrementing Example,  Next: Inc Example parts,  Prev: Incrementing Loop Details,  Up: Incrementing Loop Details

Example with incrementing counter
.................................

Suppose you are playing on the beach and decide to make a triangle of
pebbles, putting one pebble in the first row, two in the second row,
three in the third row and so on, like this:


                    *
                   * *
                  * * *
                 * * * *


(About 2500 years ago, Pythagoras and others developed the beginnings of
number theory by considering questions such as this.)

   Suppose you want to know how many pebbles you will need to make a
triangle with 7 rows?

   Clearly, what you need to do is add up the numbers from 1 to 7.
There are two ways to do this; start with the smallest number, one, and
add up the list in sequence, 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on; or start with the
largest number and add the list going down: 7, 6, 5, 4 and so on.
Because both mechanisms illustrate common ways of writing `while'
loops, we will create two examples, one counting up and the other
counting down.  In this first example, we will start with 1 and add 2,
3, 4 and so on.

   If you are just adding up a short list of numbers, the easiest way
to do it is to add up all the numbers at once.  However, if you do not
know ahead of time how many numbers your list will have, or if you want
to be prepared for a very long list, then you need to design your
addition so that what you do is repeat a simple process many times
instead of doing a more complex process once.

   For example, instead of adding up all the pebbles all at once, what
you can do is add the number of pebbles in the first row, 1, to the
number in the second row, 2, and then add the total of those two rows
to the third row, 3.  Then you can add the number in the fourth row, 4,
to the total of the first three rows; and so on.

   The critical characteristic of the process is that each repetitive
action is simple.  In this case, at each step we add only two numbers,
the number of pebbles in the row and the total already found.  This
process of adding two numbers is repeated again and again until the last
row has been added to the total of all the preceding rows.  In a more
complex loop the repetitive action might not be so simple, but it will
be simpler than doing everything all at once.


File: eintr,  Node: Inc Example parts,  Next: Inc Example altogether,  Prev: Incrementing Example,  Up: Incrementing Loop Details

The parts of the function definition
....................................

The preceding analysis gives us the bones of our function definition:
first, we will need a variable that we can call `total' that will be
the total number of pebbles.  This will be the value returned by the
function.

   Second, we know that the function will require an argument: this
argument will be the total number of rows in the triangle.  It can be
called `number-of-rows'.

   Finally, we need a variable to use as a counter.  We could call this
variable `counter', but a better name is `row-number'.  That is because
what the counter does in this function is count rows, and a program
should be written to be as understandable as possible.

   When the Lisp interpreter first starts evaluating the expressions in
the function, the value of `total' should be set to zero, since we have
not added anything to it.  Then the function should add the number of
pebbles in the first row to the total, and then add the number of
pebbles in the second to the total, and then add the number of pebbles
in the third row to the total, and so on, until there are no more rows
left to add.

   Both `total' and `row-number' are used only inside the function, so
they can be declared as local variables with `let' and given initial
values.  Clearly, the initial value for `total' should be 0.  The
initial value of `row-number' should be 1, since we start with the
first row.  This means that the `let' statement will look like this:

       (let ((total 0)
             (row-number 1))
         BODY...)

   After the internal variables are declared and bound to their initial
values, we can begin the `while' loop.  The expression that serves as
the test should return a value of `t' for true so long as the
`row-number' is less than or equal to the `number-of-rows'.  (If the
expression tests true only so long as the row number is less than the
number of rows in the triangle, the last row will never be added to the
total; hence the row number has to be either less than or equal to the
number of rows.)

   Lisp provides the `<=' function that returns true if the value of
its first argument is less than or equal to the value of its second
argument and false otherwise.  So the expression that the `while' will
evaluate as its test should look like this:

     (<= row-number number-of-rows)

   The total number of pebbles can be found by repeatedly adding the
number of pebbles in a row to the total already found.  Since the
number of pebbles in the row is equal to the row number, the total can
be found by adding the row number to the total.  (Clearly, in a more
complex situation, the number of pebbles in the row might be related to
the row number in a more complicated way; if this were the case, the
row number would be replaced by the appropriate expression.)

     (setq total (+ total row-number))

What this does is set the new value of `total' to be equal to the sum
of adding the number of pebbles in the row to the previous total.

   After setting the value of `total', the conditions need to be
established for the next repetition of the loop, if there is one.  This
is done by incrementing the value of the `row-number' variable, which
serves as a counter.  After the `row-number' variable has been
incremented, the true-or-false-test at the beginning of the `while'
loop tests whether its value is still less than or equal to the value
of the `number-of-rows' and if it is, adds the new value of the
`row-number' variable to the `total' of the previous repetition of the
loop.

   The built-in Emacs Lisp function `1+' adds 1 to a number, so the
`row-number' variable can be incremented with this expression:

     (setq row-number (1+ row-number))


File: eintr,  Node: Inc Example altogether,  Prev: Inc Example parts,  Up: Incrementing Loop Details

Putting the function definition together
........................................

We have created the parts for the function definition; now we need to
put them together.

   First, the contents of the `while' expression:

     (while (<= row-number number-of-rows)   ; true-or-false-test
       (setq total (+ total row-number))
       (setq row-number (1+ row-number)))    ; incrementer

   Along with the `let' expression varlist, this very nearly completes
the body of the function definition.  However, it requires one final
element, the need for which is somewhat subtle.

   The final touch is to place the variable `total' on a line by itself
after the `while' expression.  Otherwise, the value returned by the
whole function is the value of the last expression that is evaluated in
the body of the `let', and this is the value returned by the `while',
which is always `nil'.

   This may not be evident at first sight.  It almost looks as if the
incrementing expression is the last expression of the whole function.
But that expression is part of the body of the `while'; it is the last
element of the list that starts with the symbol `while'.  Moreover, the
whole of the `while' loop is a list within the body of the `let'.

   In outline, the function will look like this:

     (defun NAME-OF-FUNCTION (ARGUMENT-LIST)
       "DOCUMENTATION..."
       (let (VARLIST)
         (while (TRUE-OR-FALSE-TEST)
           BODY-OF-WHILE... )
         ... ))                    ; Need final expression here.

   The result of evaluating the `let' is what is going to be returned
by the `defun' since the `let' is not embedded within any containing
list, except for the `defun' as a whole.  However, if the `while' is
the last element of the `let' expression, the function will always
return `nil'.  This is not what we want!  Instead, what we want is the
value of the variable `total'.  This is returned by simply placing the
symbol as the last element of the list starting with `let'.  It gets
evaluated after the preceding elements of the list are evaluated, which
means it gets evaluated after it has been assigned the correct value
for the total.

   It may be easier to see this by printing the list starting with
`let' all on one line.  This format makes it evident that the VARLIST
and `while' expressions are the second and third elements of the list
starting with `let', and the `total' is the last element:

     (let (VARLIST) (while (TRUE-OR-FALSE-TEST) BODY-OF-WHILE... ) total)

   Putting everything together, the `triangle' function definition
looks like this:

     (defun triangle (number-of-rows)    ; Version with
                                         ;   incrementing counter.
       "Add up the number of pebbles in a triangle.
     The first row has one pebble, the second row two pebbles,
     the third row three pebbles, and so on.
     The argument is NUMBER-OF-ROWS."
       (let ((total 0)
             (row-number 1))
         (while (<= row-number number-of-rows)
           (setq total (+ total row-number))
           (setq row-number (1+ row-number)))
         total))

   After you have installed `triangle' by evaluating the function, you
can try it out.  Here are two examples:

     (triangle 4)

     (triangle 7)

The sum of the first four numbers is 10 and the sum of the first seven
numbers is 28.


File: eintr,  Node: Decrementing Loop,  Prev: Incrementing Loop Details,  Up: while

11.1.4 Loop with a Decrementing Counter
---------------------------------------

Another common way to write a `while' loop is to write the test so that
it determines whether a counter is greater than zero.  So long as the
counter is greater than zero, the loop is repeated.  But when the
counter is equal to or less than zero, the loop is stopped.  For this
to work, the counter has to start out greater than zero and then be
made smaller and smaller by a form that is evaluated repeatedly.

   The test will be an expression such as `(> counter 0)' which returns
`t' for true if the value of `counter' is greater than zero, and `nil'
for false if the value of `counter' is equal to or less than zero.  The
expression that makes the number smaller and smaller can be a simple
`setq' such as `(setq counter (1- counter))', where `1-' is a built-in
function in Emacs Lisp that subtracts 1 from its argument.

   The template for a decrementing `while' loop looks like this:

     (while (> counter 0)                    ; true-or-false-test
       BODY...
       (setq counter (1- counter)))          ; decrementer

* Menu:

* Decrementing Example::        More pebbles on the beach.
* Dec Example parts::           The parts of the function definition.
* Dec Example altogether::      Putting the function definition together.


File: eintr,  Node: Decrementing Example,  Next: Dec Example parts,  Prev: Decrementing Loop,  Up: Decrementing Loop

Example with decrementing counter
.................................

To illustrate a loop with a decrementing counter, we will rewrite the
`triangle' function so the counter decreases to zero.

   This is the reverse of the earlier version of the function.  In this
case, to find out how many pebbles are needed to make a triangle with 3
rows, add the number of pebbles in the third row, 3, to the number in
the preceding row, 2, and then add the total of those two rows to the
row that precedes them, which is 1.

   Likewise, to find the number of pebbles in a triangle with 7 rows,
add the number of pebbles in the seventh row, 7, to the number in the
preceding row, which is 6, and then add the total of those two rows to
the row that precedes them, which is 5, and so on.  As in the previous
example, each addition only involves adding two numbers, the total of
the rows already added up and the number of pebbles in the row that is
being added to the total.  This process of adding two numbers is
repeated again and again until there are no more pebbles to add.

   We know how many pebbles to start with: the number of pebbles in the
last row is equal to the number of rows.  If the triangle has seven
rows, the number of pebbles in the last row is 7.  Likewise, we know how
many pebbles are in the preceding row: it is one less than the number in
the row.


File: eintr,  Node: Dec Example parts,  Next: Dec Example altogether,  Prev: Decrementing Example,  Up: Decrementing Loop

The parts of the function definition
....................................

We start with three variables: the total number of rows in the
triangle; the number of pebbles in a row; and the total number of
pebbles, which is what we want to calculate.  These variables can be
named `number-of-rows', `number-of-pebbles-in-row', and `total',
respectively.

   Both `total' and `number-of-pebbles-in-row' are used only inside the
function and are declared with `let'.  The initial value of `total'
should, of course, be zero.  However, the initial value of
`number-of-pebbles-in-row' should be equal to the number of rows in the
triangle, since the addition will start with the longest row.

   This means that the beginning of the `let' expression will look like
this:

     (let ((total 0)
           (number-of-pebbles-in-row number-of-rows))
       BODY...)

   The total number of pebbles can be found by repeatedly adding the
number of pebbles in a row to the total already found, that is, by
repeatedly evaluating the following expression:

     (setq total (+ total number-of-pebbles-in-row))

After the `number-of-pebbles-in-row' is added to the `total', the
`number-of-pebbles-in-row' should be decremented by one, since the next
time the loop repeats, the preceding row will be added to the total.

   The number of pebbles in a preceding row is one less than the number
of pebbles in a row, so the built-in Emacs Lisp function `1-' can be
used to compute the number of pebbles in the preceding row.  This can be
done with the following expression:

     (setq number-of-pebbles-in-row
           (1- number-of-pebbles-in-row))

   Finally, we know that the `while' loop should stop making repeated
additions when there are no pebbles in a row.  So the test for the
`while' loop is simply:

     (while (> number-of-pebbles-in-row 0)


File: eintr,  Node: Dec Example altogether,  Prev: Dec Example parts,  Up: Decrementing Loop

Putting the function definition together
........................................

We can put these expressions together to create a function definition
that works.  However, on examination, we find that one of the local
variables is unneeded!

   The function definition looks like this:

     ;;; First subtractive version.
     (defun triangle (number-of-rows)
       "Add up the number of pebbles in a triangle."
       (let ((total 0)
             (number-of-pebbles-in-row number-of-rows))
         (while (> number-of-pebbles-in-row 0)
           (setq total (+ total number-of-pebbles-in-row))
           (setq number-of-pebbles-in-row
                 (1- number-of-pebbles-in-row)))
         total))

   As written, this function works.

   However, we do not need `number-of-pebbles-in-row'.

   When the `triangle' function is evaluated, the symbol
`number-of-rows' will be bound to a number, giving it an initial value.
That number can be changed in the body of the function as if it were a
local variable, without any fear that such a change will effect the
value of the variable outside of the function.  This is a very useful
characteristic of Lisp; it means that the variable `number-of-rows' can
be used anywhere in the function where `number-of-pebbles-in-row' is
used.

   Here is a second version of the function written a bit more cleanly:

     (defun triangle (number)                ; Second version.
       "Return sum of numbers 1 through NUMBER inclusive."
       (let ((total 0))
         (while (> number 0)
           (setq total (+ total number))
           (setq number (1- number)))
         total))

   In brief, a properly written `while' loop will consist of three
parts:

  1. A test that will return false after the loop has repeated itself
     the correct number of times.

  2. An expression the evaluation of which will return the value desired
     after being repeatedly evaluated.

  3. An expression to change the value passed to the true-or-false-test
     so that the test returns false after the loop has repeated itself
     the right number of times.


File: eintr,  Node: dolist dotimes,  Next: Recursion,  Prev: while,  Up: Loops & Recursion

11.2 Save your time: `dolist' and `dotimes'
===========================================

In addition to `while', both `dolist' and `dotimes' provide for
looping.  Sometimes these are quicker to write than the equivalent
`while' loop.  Both are Lisp macros.  (*Note Macros: (elisp)Macros. )

   `dolist' works like a `while' loop that `CDRs down a list':
`dolist' automatically shortens the list each time it loops--takes the
CDR of the list--and binds the CAR of each shorter version of the list
to the first of its arguments.

   `dotimes' loops a specific number of times: you specify the number.

* Menu:

* dolist::
* dotimes::


File: eintr,  Node: dolist,  Next: dotimes,  Prev: dolist dotimes,  Up: dolist dotimes

The `dolist' Macro
..................

Suppose, for example, you want to reverse a list, so that "first"
"second" "third" becomes "third" "second" "first".

   In practice, you would use the `reverse' function, like this:

     (setq animals '(gazelle giraffe lion tiger))

     (reverse animals)

Here is how you could reverse the list using a `while' loop:

     (setq animals '(gazelle giraffe lion tiger))

     (defun reverse-list-with-while (list)
       "Using while, reverse the order of LIST."
       (let (value)  ; make sure list starts empty
         (while list
           (setq value (cons (car list) value))
           (setq list (cdr list)))
         value))

     (reverse-list-with-while animals)

And here is how you could use the `dolist' macro:

     (setq animals '(gazelle giraffe lion tiger))

     (defun reverse-list-with-dolist (list)
       "Using dolist, reverse the order of LIST."
       (let (value)  ; make sure list starts empty
         (dolist (element list value)
           (setq value (cons element value)))))

     (reverse-list-with-dolist animals)

In Info, you can place your cursor after the closing parenthesis of
each expression and type `C-x C-e'; in each case, you should see

     (tiger lion giraffe gazelle)

in the echo area.

   For this example, the existing `reverse' function is obviously best.
The `while' loop is just like our first example (*note A `while' Loop
and a List: Loop Example.).  The `while' first checks whether the list
has elements; if so, it constructs a new list by adding the first
element of the list to the existing list (which in the first iteration
of the loop is `nil').  Since the second element is prepended in front
of the first element, and the third element is prepended in front of
the second element, the list is reversed.

   In the expression using a `while' loop, the `(setq list (cdr list))'
expression shortens the list, so the `while' loop eventually stops.  In
addition, it provides the `cons' expression with a new first element by
creating a new and shorter list at each repetition of the loop.

   The `dolist' expression does very much the same as the `while'
expression, except that the `dolist' macro does some of the work you
have to do when writing a `while' expression.

   Like a `while' loop, a `dolist' loops.  What is different is that it
automatically shortens the list each time it loops -- it `CDRs down the
list' on its own -- and it automatically binds the CAR of each shorter
version of the list to the first of its arguments.

   In the example, the CAR of each shorter version of the list is
referred to using the symbol `element', the list itself is called
`list', and the value returned is called `value'.  The remainder of the
`dolist' expression is the body.

   The `dolist' expression binds the CAR of each shorter version of the
list to `element' and then evaluates the body of the expression; and
repeats the loop.  The result is returned in `value'.


File: eintr,  Node: dotimes,  Prev: dolist,  Up: dolist dotimes

The `dotimes' Macro
...................

The `dotimes' macro is similar to `dolist', except that it loops a
specific number of times.

   The first argument to `dotimes' is assigned the numbers 0, 1, 2 and
so forth each time around the loop, and the value of the third argument
is returned.  You need to provide the value of the second argument,
which is how many times the macro loops.

   For example, the following binds the numbers from 0 up to, but not
including, the number 3 to the first argument, NUMBER, and then
constructs a list of the three numbers.  (The first number is 0, the
second number is 1, and the third number is 2; this makes a total of
three numbers in all, starting with zero as the first number.)

     (let (value)      ; otherwise a value is a void variable
       (dotimes (number 3 value)
         (setq value (cons number value))))

     => (2 1 0)

`dotimes' returns `value', so the way to use `dotimes' is to operate on
some expression NUMBER number of times and then return the result,
either as a list or an atom.

   Here is an example of a `defun' that uses `dotimes' to add up the
number of pebbles in a triangle.

     (defun triangle-using-dotimes (number-of-rows)
       "Using dotimes, add up the number of pebbles in a triangle."
     (let ((total 0))  ; otherwise a total is a void variable
       (dotimes (number number-of-rows total)
         (setq total (+ total (1+ number))))))

     (triangle-using-dotimes 4)


File: eintr,  Node: Recursion,  Next: Looping exercise,  Prev: dolist dotimes,  Up: Loops & Recursion

11.3 Recursion
==============

A recursive function contains code that tells the Lisp interpreter to
call a program that runs exactly like itself, but with slightly
different arguments.  The code runs exactly the same because it has the
same name.  However, even though the program has the same name, it is
not the same entity.  It is different.  In the jargon, it is a
different `instance'.

   Eventually, if the program is written correctly, the `slightly
different arguments' will become sufficiently different from the first
arguments that the final instance will stop.

* Menu:

* Building Robots::             Same model, different serial number ...
* Recursive Definition Parts::  Walk until you stop ...
* Recursion with list::         Using a list as the test whether to recurse.
* Recursive triangle function::
* Recursion with cond::
* Recursive Patterns::          Often used templates.
* No Deferment::                Don't store up work ...
* No deferment solution::


File: eintr,  Node: Building Robots,  Next: Recursive Definition Parts,  Prev: Recursion,  Up: Recursion

11.3.1 Building Robots: Extending the Metaphor
----------------------------------------------

It is sometimes helpful to think of a running program as a robot that
does a job.  In doing its job, a recursive function calls on a second
robot to help it.  The second robot is identical to the first in every
way, except that the second robot helps the first and has been passed
different arguments than the first.

   In a recursive function, the second robot may call a third; and the
third may call a fourth, and so on.  Each of these is a different
entity; but all are clones.

   Since each robot has slightly different instructions--the arguments
will differ from one robot to the next--the last robot should know when
to stop.

   Let's expand on the metaphor in which a computer program is a robot.

   A function definition provides the blueprints for a robot.  When you
install a function definition, that is, when you evaluate a `defun'
special form, you install the necessary equipment to build robots.  It
is as if you were in a factory, setting up an assembly line.  Robots
with the same name are built according to the same blueprints.  So they
have, as it were, the same `model number', but a different `serial
number'.

   We often say that a recursive function `calls itself'.  What we mean
is that the instructions in a recursive function cause the Lisp
interpreter to run a different function that has the same name and does
the same job as the first, but with different arguments.

   It is important that the arguments differ from one instance to the
next; otherwise, the process will never stop.


File: eintr,  Node: Recursive Definition Parts,  Next: Recursion with list,  Prev: Building Robots,  Up: Recursion

11.3.2 The Parts of a Recursive Definition
------------------------------------------

A recursive function typically contains a conditional expression which
has three parts:

  1. A true-or-false-test that determines whether the function is called
     again, here called the "do-again-test".

  2. The name of the function.  When this name is called, a new
     instance of the function--a new robot, as it were--is created and
     told what to do.

  3. An expression that returns a different value each time the
     function is called, here called the "next-step-expression".
     Consequently, the argument (or arguments) passed to the new
     instance of the function will be different from that passed to the
     previous instance.  This causes the conditional expression, the
     "do-again-test", to test false after the correct number of
     repetitions.

   Recursive functions can be much simpler than any other kind of
function.  Indeed, when people first start to use them, they often look
so mysteriously simple as to be incomprehensible.  Like riding a
bicycle, reading a recursive function definition takes a certain knack
which is hard at first but then seems simple.

   There are several different common recursive patterns.  A very simple
pattern looks like this:

     (defun NAME-OF-RECURSIVE-FUNCTION (ARGUMENT-LIST)
       "DOCUMENTATION..."
       (if DO-AGAIN-TEST
         BODY...
         (NAME-OF-RECURSIVE-FUNCTION
              NEXT-STEP-EXPRESSION)))

   Each time a recursive function is evaluated, a new instance of it is
created and told what to do.  The arguments tell the instance what to
do.

   An argument is bound to the value of the next-step-expression.  Each
instance runs with a different value of the next-step-expression.

   The value in the next-step-expression is used in the do-again-test.

   The value returned by the next-step-expression is passed to the new
instance of the function, which evaluates it (or some
transmogrification of it) to determine whether to continue or stop.
The next-step-expression is designed so that the do-again-test returns
false when the function should no longer be repeated.

   The do-again-test is sometimes called the "stop condition", since it
stops the repetitions when it tests false.


File: eintr,  Node: Recursion with list,  Next: Recursive triangle function,  Prev: Recursive Definition Parts,  Up: Recursion

11.3.3 Recursion with a List
----------------------------

The example of a `while' loop that printed the elements of a list of
numbers can be written recursively.  Here is the code, including an
expression to set the value of the variable `animals' to a list.

   If you are using GNU Emacs 20 or before, this example must be copied
to the `*scratch*' buffer and each expression must be evaluated there.
Use `C-u C-x C-e' to evaluate the `(print-elements-recursively
animals)' expression so that the results are printed in the buffer;
otherwise the Lisp interpreter will try to squeeze the results into the
one line of the echo area.

   Also, place your cursor immediately after the last closing
parenthesis of the `print-elements-recursively' function, before the
comment.  Otherwise, the Lisp interpreter will try to evaluate the
comment.

   If you are using a more recent version of Emacs, you can evaluate
this expression directly in Info.

     (setq animals '(gazelle giraffe lion tiger))

     (defun print-elements-recursively (list)
       "Print each element of LIST on a line of its own.
     Uses recursion."
       (when list                            ; do-again-test
             (print (car list))              ; body
             (print-elements-recursively     ; recursive call
              (cdr list))))                  ; next-step-expression

     (print-elements-recursively animals)

   The `print-elements-recursively' function first tests whether there
is any content in the list; if there is, the function prints the first
element of the list, the CAR of the list.  Then the function `invokes
itself', but gives itself as its argument, not the whole list, but the
second and subsequent elements of the list, the CDR of the list.

   Put another way, if the list is not empty, the function invokes
another instance of code that is similar to the initial code, but is a
different thread of execution, with different arguments than the first
instance.

   Put in yet another way, if the list is not empty, the first robot
assemblies a second robot and tells it what to do; the second robot is
a different individual from the first, but is the same model.

   When the second evaluation occurs, the `when' expression is
evaluated and if true, prints the first element of the list it receives
as its argument (which is the second element of the original list).
Then the function `calls itself' with the CDR of the list it is invoked
with, which (the second time around) is the CDR of the CDR of the
original list.

   Note that although we say that the function `calls itself', what we
mean is that the Lisp interpreter assembles and instructs a new
instance of the program.  The new instance is a clone of the first, but
is a separate individual.

   Each time the function `invokes itself', it invokes itself on a
shorter version of the original list.  It creates a new instance that
works on a shorter list.

   Eventually, the function invokes itself on an empty list.  It creates
a new instance whose argument is `nil'.  The conditional expression
tests the value of `list'.  Since the value of `list' is `nil', the
`when' expression tests false so the then-part is not evaluated.  The
function as a whole then returns `nil'.

   When you evaluate `(print-elements-recursively animals)' in the
`*scratch*' buffer, you see this result:

     gazelle

     giraffe

     lion

     tiger
     nil


File: eintr,  Node: Recursive triangle function,  Next: Recursion with cond,  Prev: Recursion with list,  Up: Recursion

11.3.4 Recursion in Place of a Counter
--------------------------------------

The `triangle' function described in a previous section can also be
written recursively.  It looks like this:

     (defun triangle-recursively (number)
       "Return the sum of the numbers 1 through NUMBER inclusive.
     Uses recursion."
       (if (= number 1)                    ; do-again-test
           1                               ; then-part
         (+ number                         ; else-part
            (triangle-recursively          ; recursive call
             (1- number)))))               ; next-step-expression

     (triangle-recursively 7)

You can install this function by evaluating it and then try it by
evaluating `(triangle-recursively 7)'.  (Remember to put your cursor
immediately after the last parenthesis of the function definition,
before the comment.)  The function evaluates to 28.

   To understand how this function works, let's consider what happens
in the various cases when the function is passed 1, 2, 3, or 4 as the
value of its argument.

* Menu:

* Recursive Example arg of 1 or 2::
* Recursive Example arg of 3 or 4::


File: eintr,  Node: Recursive Example arg of 1 or 2,  Next: Recursive Example arg of 3 or 4,  Prev: Recursive triangle function,  Up: Recursive triangle function

An argument of 1 or 2
.....................

   First, what happens if the value of the argument is 1?

   The function has an `if' expression after the documentation string.
It tests whether the value of `number' is equal to 1; if so, Emacs
evaluates the then-part of the `if' expression, which returns the
number 1 as the value of the function.  (A triangle with one row has
one pebble in it.)

   Suppose, however, that the value of the argument is 2.  In this case,
Emacs evaluates the else-part of the `if' expression.

   The else-part consists of an addition, the recursive call to
`triangle-recursively' and a decrementing action; and it looks like
this:

     (+ number (triangle-recursively (1- number)))

   When Emacs evaluates this expression, the innermost expression is
evaluated first; then the other parts in sequence.  Here are the steps
in detail:

Step 1    Evaluate the innermost expression.
     The innermost expression is `(1- number)' so Emacs decrements the
     value of `number' from 2 to 1.

Step 2    Evaluate the `triangle-recursively' function.
     The Lisp interpreter creates an individual instance of
     `triangle-recursively'.  It does not matter that this function is
     contained within itself.  Emacs passes the result Step 1 as the
     argument used by this instance of the `triangle-recursively'
     function

     In this case, Emacs evaluates `triangle-recursively' with an
     argument of 1.  This means that this evaluation of
     `triangle-recursively' returns 1.

Step 3    Evaluate the value of `number'.
     The variable `number' is the second element of the list that
     starts with `+'; its value is 2.

Step 4    Evaluate the `+' expression.
     The `+' expression receives two arguments, the first from the
     evaluation of `number' (Step 3) and the second from the evaluation
     of `triangle-recursively' (Step 2).

     The result of the addition is the sum of 2 plus 1, and the number
     3 is returned, which is correct.  A triangle with two rows has
     three pebbles in it.


File: eintr,  Node: Recursive Example arg of 3 or 4,  Prev: Recursive Example arg of 1 or 2,  Up: Recursive triangle function

An argument of 3 or 4
.....................

Suppose that `triangle-recursively' is called with an argument of 3.

Step 1    Evaluate the do-again-test.
     The `if' expression is evaluated first.  This is the do-again test
     and returns false, so the else-part of the `if' expression is
     evaluated.  (Note that in this example, the do-again-test causes
     the function to call itself when it tests false, not when it tests
     true.)

Step 2    Evaluate the innermost expression of the else-part.
     The innermost expression of the else-part is evaluated, which
     decrements 3 to 2.  This is the next-step-expression.

Step 3    Evaluate the `triangle-recursively' function.
     The number 2 is passed to the `triangle-recursively' function.

     We know what happens when Emacs evaluates `triangle-recursively'
     with an argument of 2.  After going through the sequence of
     actions described earlier, it returns a value of 3.  So that is
     what will happen here.

Step 4    Evaluate the addition.
     3 will be passed as an argument to the addition and will be added
     to the number with which the function was called, which is 3.

The value returned by the function as a whole will be 6.

   Now that we know what will happen when `triangle-recursively' is
called with an argument of 3, it is evident what will happen if it is
called with an argument of 4:

     In the recursive call, the evaluation of

          (triangle-recursively (1- 4))

     will return the value of evaluating

          (triangle-recursively 3)

     which is 6 and this value will be added to 4 by the addition in the
     third line.

The value returned by the function as a whole will be 10.

   Each time `triangle-recursively' is evaluated, it evaluates a
version of itself--a different instance of itself--with a smaller
argument, until the argument is small enough so that it does not
evaluate itself.

   Note that this particular design for a recursive function requires
that operations be deferred.

   Before `(triangle-recursively 7)' can calculate its answer, it must
call `(triangle-recursively 6)'; and before `(triangle-recursively 6)'
can calculate its answer, it must call `(triangle-recursively 5)'; and
so on.  That is to say, the calculation that `(triangle-recursively 7)'
makes must be deferred until `(triangle-recursively 6)' makes its
calculation; and `(triangle-recursively 6)' must defer until
`(triangle-recursively 5)' completes; and so on.

   If each of these instances of `triangle-recursively' are thought of
as different robots, the first robot must wait for the second to
complete its job, which must wait until the third completes, and so on.

   There is a way around this kind of waiting, which we will discuss in
*note Recursion without Deferments: No Deferment.


File: eintr,  Node: Recursion with cond,  Next: Recursive Patterns,  Prev: Recursive triangle function,  Up: Recursion

11.3.5 Recursion Example Using `cond'
-------------------------------------

The version of `triangle-recursively' described earlier is written with
the `if' special form.  It can also be written using another special
form called `cond'.  The name of the special form `cond' is an
abbreviation of the word `conditional'.

   Although the `cond' special form is not used as often in the Emacs
Lisp sources as `if', it is used often enough to justify explaining it.

   The template for a `cond' expression looks like this:

     (cond
      BODY...)

where the BODY is a series of lists.

   Written out more fully, the template looks like this:

     (cond
      (FIRST-TRUE-OR-FALSE-TEST FIRST-CONSEQUENT)
      (SECOND-TRUE-OR-FALSE-TEST SECOND-CONSEQUENT)
      (THIRD-TRUE-OR-FALSE-TEST THIRD-CONSEQUENT)
       ...)

   When the Lisp interpreter evaluates the `cond' expression, it
evaluates the first element (the CAR or true-or-false-test) of the
first expression in a series of expressions within the body of the
`cond'.

   If the true-or-false-test returns `nil' the rest of that expression,
the consequent, is skipped and  the true-or-false-test of the next
expression is evaluated.  When an expression is found whose
true-or-false-test returns a value that is not `nil', the consequent of
that expression is evaluated.  The consequent can be one or more
expressions.  If the consequent consists of more than one expression,
the expressions are evaluated in sequence and the value of the last one
is returned.  If the expression does not have a consequent, the value
of the true-or-false-test is returned.

   If none of the true-or-false-tests test true, the `cond' expression
returns `nil'.

   Written using `cond', the `triangle' function looks like this:

     (defun triangle-using-cond (number)
       (cond ((<= number 0) 0)
             ((= number 1) 1)
             ((> number 1)
              (+ number (triangle-using-cond (1- number))))))

In this example, the `cond' returns 0 if the number is less than or
equal to 0, it returns 1 if the number is 1 and it evaluates `(+ number
(triangle-using-cond (1- number)))' if the number is greater than 1.


File: eintr,  Node: Recursive Patterns,  Next: No Deferment,  Prev: Recursion with cond,  Up: Recursion

11.3.6 Recursive Patterns
-------------------------

Here are three common recursive patterns.  Each involves a list.
Recursion does not need to involve lists, but Lisp is designed for lists
and this provides a sense of its primal capabilities.

* Menu:

* Every::
* Accumulate::
* Keep::


File: eintr,  Node: Every,  Next: Accumulate,  Prev: Recursive Patterns,  Up: Recursive Patterns

Recursive Pattern: _every_
..........................

In the `every' recursive pattern, an action is performed on every
element of a list.

   The basic pattern is:

   * If a list be empty, return `nil'.

   * Else, act on the beginning of the list (the CAR of the list)
        -     through a recursive call by the function on the rest (the
             CDR) of the list,

        -     and, optionally, combine the acted-on element, using
          `cons',     with the results of acting on the rest.

   Here is example:

     (defun square-each (numbers-list)
       "Square each of a NUMBERS LIST, recursively."
       (if (not numbers-list)                ; do-again-test
           nil
         (cons
          (* (car numbers-list) (car numbers-list))
          (square-each (cdr numbers-list))))) ; next-step-expression

     (square-each '(1 2 3))
         => (1 4 9)

If `numbers-list' is empty, do nothing.  But if it has content,
construct a list combining the square of the first number in the list
with the result of the recursive call.

   (The example follows the pattern exactly: `nil' is returned if the
numbers' list is empty.  In practice, you would write the conditional
so it carries out the action when the numbers' list is not empty.)

   The `print-elements-recursively' function (*note Recursion with a
List: Recursion with list.) is another example of an `every' pattern,
except in this case, rather than bring the results together using
`cons', we print each element of output.

   The `print-elements-recursively' function looks like this:

     (setq animals '(gazelle giraffe lion tiger))

     (defun print-elements-recursively (list)
       "Print each element of LIST on a line of its own.
     Uses recursion."
       (when list                            ; do-again-test
             (print (car list))              ; body
             (print-elements-recursively     ; recursive call
              (cdr list))))                  ; next-step-expression

     (print-elements-recursively animals)

   The pattern for `print-elements-recursively' is:

   * When the list is empty, do nothing.

   * But when the list has at least one element,
        -     act on the beginning of the list (the CAR of the list),

        -     and make a recursive call on the rest (the CDR) of the
          list.


File: eintr,  Node: Accumulate,  Next: Keep,  Prev: Every,  Up: Recursive Patterns

Recursive Pattern: _accumulate_
...............................

Another recursive pattern is called the `accumulate' pattern.  In the
`accumulate' recursive pattern, an action is performed on every element
of a list and the result of that action is accumulated with the results
of performing the action on the other elements.

   This is very like the `every' pattern using `cons', except that
`cons' is not used, but some other combiner.

   The pattern is:

   * If a list be empty, return zero or some other constant.

   * Else, act on the beginning of the list (the CAR of the list),
        -     and combine that acted-on element, using `+' or     some
          other combining function, with

        -     a recursive call by the function on the rest (the CDR) of
          the list.

   Here is an example:

     (defun add-elements (numbers-list)
       "Add the elements of NUMBERS-LIST together."
       (if (not numbers-list)
           0
         (+ (car numbers-list) (add-elements (cdr numbers-list)))))

     (add-elements '(1 2 3 4))
         => 10

   *Note Making a List of Files: Files List, for an example of the
accumulate pattern.


File: eintr,  Node: Keep,  Prev: Accumulate,  Up: Recursive Patterns

Recursive Pattern: _keep_
.........................

A third recursive pattern is called the `keep' pattern.  In the `keep'
recursive pattern, each element of a list is tested; the element is
acted on and the results are kept only if the element meets a criterion.

   Again, this is very like the `every' pattern, except the element is
skipped unless it meets a criterion.

   The pattern has three parts:

   * If a list be empty, return `nil'.

   * Else, if the beginning of the list (the CAR of the list) passes
         a test
        -     act on that element and combine it, using `cons' with

        -     a recursive call by the function on the rest (the CDR) of
          the list.

   * Otherwise, if the beginning of the list (the CAR of the list) fails
     the test
        -     skip on that element,

        -     and, recursively call the function on the rest (the CDR)
          of the list.

   Here is an example that uses `cond':

     (defun keep-three-letter-words (word-list)
       "Keep three letter words in WORD-LIST."
       (cond
        ;; First do-again-test: stop-condition
        ((not word-list) nil)

        ;; Second do-again-test: when to act
        ((eq 3 (length (symbol-name (car word-list))))
         ;; combine acted-on element with recursive call on shorter list
         (cons (car word-list) (keep-three-letter-words (cdr word-list))))

        ;; Third do-again-test: when to skip element;
        ;;   recursively call shorter list with next-step expression
        (t (keep-three-letter-words (cdr word-list)))))

     (keep-three-letter-words '(one two three four five six))
         => (one two six)

   It goes without saying that you need not use `nil' as the test for
when to stop; and you can, of course, combine these patterns.


File: eintr,  Node: No Deferment,  Next: No deferment solution,  Prev: Recursive Patterns,  Up: Recursion

11.3.7 Recursion without Deferments
-----------------------------------

Let's consider again what happens with the `triangle-recursively'
function.  We will find that the intermediate calculations are deferred
until all can be done.

   Here is the function definition:

     (defun triangle-recursively (number)
       "Return the sum of the numbers 1 through NUMBER inclusive.
     Uses recursion."
       (if (= number 1)                    ; do-again-test
           1                               ; then-part
         (+ number                         ; else-part
            (triangle-recursively          ; recursive call
             (1- number)))))               ; next-step-expression

   What happens when we call this function with a argument of 7?

   The first instance of the `triangle-recursively' function adds the
number 7 to the value returned by a second instance of
`triangle-recursively', an instance that has been passed an argument of
6.  That is to say, the first calculation is:

     (+ 7 (triangle-recursively 6))

The first instance of `triangle-recursively'--you may want to think of
it as a little robot--cannot complete its job.  It must hand off the
calculation for `(triangle-recursively 6)' to a second instance of the
program, to a second robot.  This second individual is completely
different from the first one; it is, in the jargon, a `different
instantiation'.  Or, put another way, it is a different robot.  It is
the same model as the first; it calculates triangle numbers
recursively; but it has a different serial number.

   And what does `(triangle-recursively 6)' return?  It returns the
number 6 added to the value returned by evaluating
`triangle-recursively' with an argument of 5.  Using the robot
metaphor, it asks yet another robot to help it.

   Now the total is:

     (+ 7 6 (triangle-recursively 5))

   And what happens next?

     (+ 7 6 5 (triangle-recursively 4))

   Each time `triangle-recursively' is called, except for the last
time, it creates another instance of the program--another robot--and
asks it to make a calculation.

   Eventually, the full addition is set up and performed:

     (+ 7 6 5 4 3 2 1)

   This design for the function defers the calculation of the first step
until the second can be done, and defers that until the third can be
done, and so on.  Each deferment means the computer must remember what
is being waited on.  This is not a problem when there are only a few
steps, as in this example.  But it can be a problem when there are more
steps.


File: eintr,  Node: No deferment solution,  Prev: No Deferment,  Up: Recursion

11.3.8 No Deferment Solution
----------------------------

The solution to the problem of deferred operations is to write in a
manner that does not defer operations(1).  This requires writing to a
different pattern, often one that involves writing two function
definitions, an `initialization' function and a `helper' function.

   The `initialization' function sets up the job; the `helper' function
does the work.

   Here are the two function definitions for adding up numbers.  They
are so simple, I find them hard to understand.

     (defun triangle-initialization (number)
       "Return the sum of the numbers 1 through NUMBER inclusive.
     This is the `initialization' component of a two function
     duo that uses recursion."
       (triangle-recursive-helper 0 0 number))

     (defun triangle-recursive-helper (sum counter number)
       "Return SUM, using COUNTER, through NUMBER inclusive.
     This is the `helper' component of a two function duo
     that uses recursion."
       (if (> counter number)
           sum
         (triangle-recursive-helper (+ sum counter)  ; sum
                                    (1+ counter)     ; counter
                                    number)))        ; number

   Install both function definitions by evaluating them, then call
`triangle-initialization' with 2 rows:

     (triangle-initialization 2)
         => 3

   The `initialization' function calls the first instance of the
`helper' function with three arguments: zero, zero, and a number which
is the number of rows in the triangle.

   The first two arguments passed to the `helper' function are
initialization values.  These values are changed when
`triangle-recursive-helper' invokes new instances.(2)

   Let's see what happens when we have a triangle that has one row.
(This triangle will have one pebble in it!)

   `triangle-initialization' will call its helper with the arguments
`0 0 1'.  That function will run the conditional test whether `(>
counter number)':

     (> 0 1)

and find that the result is false, so it will invoke the else-part of
the `if' clause:

         (triangle-recursive-helper
          (+ sum counter)  ; sum plus counter => sum
          (1+ counter)     ; increment counter => counter
          number)          ; number stays the same

which will first compute:

     (triangle-recursive-helper (+ 0 0)  ; sum
                                (1+ 0)   ; counter
                                1)       ; number
which is:

     (triangle-recursive-helper 0 1 1)

   Again, `(> counter number)' will be false, so again, the Lisp
interpreter will evaluate `triangle-recursive-helper', creating a new
instance with new arguments.

   This new instance will be;

         (triangle-recursive-helper
          (+ sum counter)  ; sum plus counter => sum
          (1+ counter)     ; increment counter => counter
          number)          ; number stays the same

which is:

     (triangle-recursive-helper 1 2 1)

   In this case, the `(> counter number)' test will be true!  So the
instance will return the value of the sum, which will be 1, as expected.

   Now, let's pass `triangle-initialization' an argument of 2, to find
out how many pebbles there are in a triangle with two rows.

   That function calls `(triangle-recursive-helper 0 0 2)'.

   In stages, the instances called will be:

                               sum counter number
     (triangle-recursive-helper 0    1       2)

     (triangle-recursive-helper 1    2       2)

     (triangle-recursive-helper 3    3       2)

   When the last instance is called, the `(> counter number)' test will
be true, so the instance will return the value of `sum', which will be
3.

   This kind of pattern helps when you are writing functions that can
use many resources in a computer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The phrase "tail recursive" is used to describe such a process,
one that uses `constant space'.

   (2) The jargon is mildly confusing:  `triangle-recursive-helper'
uses a process that is iterative in a procedure that is recursive.  The
process is called iterative because the computer need only record the
three values, `sum', `counter', and `number'; the procedure is
recursive because the function `calls itself'.  On the other hand, both
the process and the procedure used by `triangle-recursively' are called
recursive.  The word `recursive' has different meanings in the two
contexts.


File: eintr,  Node: Looping exercise,  Prev: Recursion,  Up: Loops & Recursion

11.4 Looping Exercise
=====================

   * Write a function similar to `triangle' in which each row has a
     value which is the square of the row number.  Use a `while' loop.

   * Write a function similar to `triangle' that multiplies instead of
     adds the values.

   * Rewrite these two functions recursively.  Rewrite these functions
     using `cond'.

   * Write a function for Texinfo mode that creates an index entry at
     the beginning of a paragraph for every `@dfn' within the paragraph.
     (In a Texinfo file, `@dfn' marks a definition.  This book is
     written in Texinfo.)

     Many of the functions you will need are described in two of the
     previous chapters, *note Cutting and Storing Text: Cutting &
     Storing Text, and *note Yanking Text Back: Yanking.  If you use
     `forward-paragraph' to put the index entry at the beginning of the
     paragraph, you will have to use `C-h f' (`describe-function') to
     find out how to make the command go backwards.

     For more information, see *note Indicating Definitions:
     (texinfo)Indicating.


File: eintr,  Node: Regexp Search,  Next: Counting Words,  Prev: Loops & Recursion,  Up: Top

12 Regular Expression Searches
******************************

Regular expression searches are used extensively in GNU Emacs.  The two
functions, `forward-sentence' and `forward-paragraph', illustrate these
searches well.  They use regular expressions to find where to move
point.  The phrase `regular expression' is often written as `regexp'.

   Regular expression searches are described in *note Regular
Expression Search: (emacs)Regexp Search, as well as in *note Regular
Expressions: (elisp)Regular Expressions.  In writing this chapter, I am
presuming that you have at least a mild acquaintance with them.  The
major point to remember is that regular expressions permit you to
search for patterns as well as for literal strings of characters.  For
example, the code in `forward-sentence' searches for the pattern of
possible characters that could mark the end of a sentence, and moves
point to that spot.

   Before looking at the code for the `forward-sentence' function, it
is worth considering what the pattern that marks the end of a sentence
must be.  The pattern is discussed in the next section; following that
is a description of the regular expression search function,
`re-search-forward'.  The `forward-sentence' function is described in
the section following.  Finally, the `forward-paragraph' function is
described in the last section of this chapter.  `forward-paragraph' is
a complex function that introduces several new features.

* Menu:

* sentence-end::                The regular expression for `sentence-end'.
* re-search-forward::           Very similar to `search-forward'.
* forward-sentence::            A straightforward example of regexp search.
* forward-paragraph::           A somewhat complex example.
* etags::                       How to create your own `TAGS' table.
* Regexp Review::
* re-search Exercises::


File: eintr,  Node: sentence-end,  Next: re-search-forward,  Prev: Regexp Search,  Up: Regexp Search

12.1 The Regular Expression for `sentence-end'
==============================================

The symbol `sentence-end' is bound to the pattern that marks the end of
a sentence.  What should this regular expression be?

   Clearly, a sentence may be ended by a period, a question mark, or an
exclamation mark.  Indeed, in English, only clauses that end with one
of those three characters should be considered the end of a sentence.
This means that the pattern should include the character set:

     [.?!]

   However, we do not want `forward-sentence' merely to jump to a
period, a question mark, or an exclamation mark, because such a
character might be used in the middle of a sentence.  A period, for
example, is used after abbreviations.  So other information is needed.

   According to convention, you type two spaces after every sentence,
but only one space after a period, a question mark, or an exclamation
mark in the body of a sentence.  So a period, a question mark, or an
exclamation mark followed by two spaces is a good indicator of an end
of sentence.  However, in a file, the two spaces may instead be a tab
or the end of a line.  This means that the regular expression should
include these three items as alternatives.

   This group of alternatives will look like this:

     \\($\\| \\|  \\)
            ^   ^^
           TAB  SPC

Here, `$' indicates the end of the line, and I have pointed out where
the tab and two spaces are inserted in the expression.  Both are
inserted by putting the actual characters into the expression.

   Two backslashes, `\\', are required before the parentheses and
vertical bars: the first backslash quotes the following backslash in
Emacs; and the second indicates that the following character, the
parenthesis or the vertical bar, is special.

   Also, a sentence may be followed by one or more carriage returns,
like this:

     [
     ]*

Like tabs and spaces, a carriage return is inserted into a regular
expression by inserting it literally.  The asterisk indicates that the
<RET> is repeated zero or more times.

   But a sentence end does not consist only of a period, a question
mark or an exclamation mark followed by appropriate space: a closing
quotation mark or a closing brace of some kind may precede the space.
Indeed more than one such mark or brace may precede the space.  These
require a expression that looks like this:

     []\"')}]*

   In this expression, the first `]' is the first character in the
expression; the second character is `"', which is preceded by a `\' to
tell Emacs the `"' is _not_ special.  The last three characters are
`'', `)', and `}'.

   All this suggests what the regular expression pattern for matching
the end of a sentence should be; and, indeed, if we evaluate
`sentence-end' we find that it returns the following value:

     sentence-end
          => "[.?!][]\"')}]*\\($\\|     \\|  \\)[
     ]*"

(Well, not in GNU Emacs 22; that is because of an effort to make the
process simpler and to handle more glyphs and languages.  When the
value of `sentence-end' is `nil', then use the value defined by the
function `sentence-end'.  (Here is a use of the difference between a
value and a function in Emacs Lisp.)  The function returns a value
constructed from the variables `sentence-end-base',
`sentence-end-double-space', `sentence-end-without-period', and
`sentence-end-without-space'.  The critical variable is
`sentence-end-base'; its global value is similar to the one described
above but it also contains two additional quotation marks.  These have
differing degrees of curliness.  The `sentence-end-without-period'
variable, when true, tells Emacs that a sentence may end without a
period, such as text in Thai.)


File: eintr,  Node: re-search-forward,  Next: forward-sentence,  Prev: sentence-end,  Up: Regexp Search

12.2 The `re-search-forward' Function
=====================================

The `re-search-forward' function is very like the `search-forward'
function.  (*Note The `search-forward' Function: search-forward.)

   `re-search-forward' searches for a regular expression.  If the
search is successful, it leaves point immediately after the last
character in the target.  If the search is backwards, it leaves point
just before the first character in the target.  You may tell
`re-search-forward' to return `t' for true.  (Moving point is therefore
a `side effect'.)

   Like `search-forward', the `re-search-forward' function takes four
arguments:

  1. The first argument is the regular expression that the function
     searches for.  The regular expression will be a string between
     quotations marks.

  2. The optional second argument limits how far the function will
     search; it is a bound, which is specified as a position in the
     buffer.

  3. The optional third argument specifies how the function responds to
     failure: `nil' as the third argument causes the function to signal
     an error (and print a message) when the search fails; any other
     value causes it to return `nil' if the search fails and `t' if the
     search succeeds.

  4. The optional fourth argument is the repeat count.  A negative
     repeat count causes `re-search-forward' to search backwards.

   The template for `re-search-forward' looks like this:

     (re-search-forward "REGULAR-EXPRESSION"
                     LIMIT-OF-SEARCH
                     WHAT-TO-DO-IF-SEARCH-FAILS
                     REPEAT-COUNT)

   The second, third, and fourth arguments are optional.  However, if
you want to pass a value to either or both of the last two arguments,
you must also pass a value to all the preceding arguments.  Otherwise,
the Lisp interpreter will mistake which argument you are passing the
value to.

   In the `forward-sentence' function, the regular expression will be
the value of the variable `sentence-end'.  In simple form, that is:

     "[.?!][]\"')}]*\\($\\|  \\|  \\)[
     ]*"

The limit of the search will be the end of the paragraph (since a
sentence cannot go beyond a paragraph).  If the search fails, the
function will return `nil'; and the repeat count will be provided by
the argument to the `forward-sentence' function.


File: eintr,  Node: forward-sentence,  Next: forward-paragraph,  Prev: re-search-forward,  Up: Regexp Search

12.3 `forward-sentence'
=======================

The command to move the cursor forward a sentence is a straightforward
illustration of how to use regular expression searches in Emacs Lisp.
Indeed, the function looks longer and more complicated than it is; this
is because the function is designed to go backwards as well as forwards;
and, optionally, over more than one sentence.  The function is usually
bound to the key command `M-e'.

* Menu:

* Complete forward-sentence::
* fwd-sentence while loops::    Two `while' loops.
* fwd-sentence re-search::      A regular expression search.


File: eintr,  Node: Complete forward-sentence,  Next: fwd-sentence while loops,  Prev: forward-sentence,  Up: forward-sentence

Complete `forward-sentence' function definition
-----------------------------------------------

   Here is the code for `forward-sentence':

     (defun forward-sentence (&optional arg)
       "Move forward to next `sentence-end'.  With argument, repeat.
     With negative argument, move backward repeatedly to `sentence-beginning'.

     The variable `sentence-end' is a regular expression that matches ends of
     sentences.  Also, every paragraph boundary terminates sentences as well."
       (interactive "p")
       (or arg (setq arg 1))
       (let ((opoint (point))
             (sentence-end (sentence-end)))
         (while (< arg 0)
           (let ((pos (point))
                 (par-beg (save-excursion (start-of-paragraph-text) (point))))
            (if (and (re-search-backward sentence-end par-beg t)
                     (or (< (match-end 0) pos)
                         (re-search-backward sentence-end par-beg t)))
                (goto-char (match-end 0))
              (goto-char par-beg)))
           (setq arg (1+ arg)))
         (while (> arg 0)
           (let ((par-end (save-excursion (end-of-paragraph-text) (point))))
            (if (re-search-forward sentence-end par-end t)
                (skip-chars-backward " \t\n")
              (goto-char par-end)))
           (setq arg (1- arg)))
         (constrain-to-field nil opoint t)))

   The function looks long at first sight and it is best to look at its
skeleton first, and then its muscle.  The way to see the skeleton is to
look at the expressions that start in the left-most columns:

     (defun forward-sentence (&optional arg)
       "DOCUMENTATION..."
       (interactive "p")
       (or arg (setq arg 1))
       (let ((opoint (point)) (sentence-end (sentence-end)))
         (while (< arg 0)
           (let ((pos (point))
                 (par-beg (save-excursion (start-of-paragraph-text) (point))))
            REST-OF-BODY-OF-WHILE-LOOP-WHEN-GOING-BACKWARDS
         (while (> arg 0)
           (let ((par-end (save-excursion (end-of-paragraph-text) (point))))
            REST-OF-BODY-OF-WHILE-LOOP-WHEN-GOING-FORWARDS
         HANDLE-FORMS-AND-EQUIVALENT

   This looks much simpler!  The function definition consists of
documentation, an `interactive' expression, an `or' expression, a `let'
expression, and `while' loops.

   Let's look at each of these parts in turn.

   We note that the documentation is thorough and understandable.

   The function has an `interactive "p"' declaration.  This means that
the processed prefix argument, if any, is passed to the function as its
argument.  (This will be a number.)  If the function is not passed an
argument (it is optional) then the argument `arg' will be bound to 1.

   When `forward-sentence' is called non-interactively without an
argument, `arg' is bound to `nil'.  The `or' expression handles this.
What it does is either leave the value of `arg' as it is, but only if
`arg' is bound to a value; or it sets the value of `arg' to 1, in the
case when `arg' is bound to `nil'.

   Next is a `let'.  That specifies the values of two local variables,
`point' and `sentence-end'.  The local value of point, from before the
search, is used in the `constrain-to-field' function which handles
forms and equivalents.  The `sentence-end' variable is set by the
`sentence-end' function.


File: eintr,  Node: fwd-sentence while loops,  Next: fwd-sentence re-search,  Prev: Complete forward-sentence,  Up: forward-sentence

The `while' loops
-----------------

Two `while' loops follow.  The first `while' has a true-or-false-test
that tests true if the prefix argument for `forward-sentence' is a
negative number.  This is for going backwards.  The body of this loop
is similar to the body of the second `while' clause, but it is not
exactly the same.  We will skip this `while' loop and concentrate on
the second `while' loop.

   The second `while' loop is for moving point forward.  Its skeleton
looks like this:

     (while (> arg 0)            ; true-or-false-test
       (let VARLIST
         (if (TRUE-OR-FALSE-TEST)
             THEN-PART
           ELSE-PART
       (setq arg (1- arg))))     ; `while' loop decrementer

   The `while' loop is of the decrementing kind.  (*Note A Loop with a
Decrementing Counter: Decrementing Loop.)  It has a true-or-false-test
that tests true so long as the counter (in this case, the variable
`arg') is greater than zero; and it has a decrementer that subtracts 1
from the value of the counter every time the loop repeats.

   If no prefix argument is given to `forward-sentence', which is the
most common way the command is used, this `while' loop will run once,
since the value of `arg' will be 1.

   The body of the `while' loop consists of a `let' expression, which
creates and binds a local variable, and has, as its body, an `if'
expression.

   The body of the `while' loop looks like this:

     (let ((par-end
            (save-excursion (end-of-paragraph-text) (point))))
       (if (re-search-forward sentence-end par-end t)
           (skip-chars-backward " \t\n")
         (goto-char par-end)))

   The `let' expression creates and binds the local variable `par-end'.
As we shall see, this local variable is designed to provide a bound or
limit to the regular expression search.  If the search fails to find a
proper sentence ending in the paragraph, it will stop on reaching the
end of the paragraph.

   But first, let us examine how `par-end' is bound to the value of the
end of the paragraph.  What happens is that the `let' sets the value of
`par-end' to the value returned when the Lisp interpreter evaluates the
expression

     (save-excursion (end-of-paragraph-text) (point))

In this expression, `(end-of-paragraph-text)' moves point to the end of
the paragraph, `(point)' returns the value of point, and then
`save-excursion' restores point to its original position.  Thus, the
`let' binds `par-end' to the value returned by the `save-excursion'
expression, which is the position of the end of the paragraph.  (The
`end-of-paragraph-text' function uses `forward-paragraph', which we
will discuss shortly.)

   Emacs next evaluates the body of the `let', which is an `if'
expression that looks like this:

     (if (re-search-forward sentence-end par-end t) ; if-part
         (skip-chars-backward " \t\n")              ; then-part
       (goto-char par-end)))                        ; else-part

   The `if' tests whether its first argument is true and if so,
evaluates its then-part; otherwise, the Emacs Lisp interpreter
evaluates the else-part.  The true-or-false-test of the `if' expression
is the regular expression search.

   It may seem odd to have what looks like the `real work' of the
`forward-sentence' function buried here, but this is a common way this
kind of operation is carried out in Lisp.


File: eintr,  Node: fwd-sentence re-search,  Prev: fwd-sentence while loops,  Up: forward-sentence

The regular expression search
-----------------------------

The `re-search-forward' function searches for the end of the sentence,
that is, for the pattern defined by the `sentence-end' regular
expression.  If the pattern is found--if the end of the sentence is
found--then the `re-search-forward' function does two things:

  1. The `re-search-forward' function carries out a side effect, which
     is to move point to the end of the occurrence found.

  2. The `re-search-forward' function returns a value of true.  This is
     the value received by the `if', and means that the search was
     successful.

The side effect, the movement of point, is completed before the `if'
function is handed the value returned by the successful conclusion of
the search.

   When the `if' function receives the value of true from a successful
call to `re-search-forward', the `if' evaluates the then-part, which is
the expression `(skip-chars-backward " \t\n")'.  This expression moves
backwards over any blank spaces, tabs or carriage returns until a
printed character is found and then leaves point after the character.
Since point has already been moved to the end of the pattern that marks
the end of the sentence, this action leaves point right after the
closing printed character of the sentence, which is usually a period.

   On the other hand, if the `re-search-forward' function fails to find
a pattern marking the end of the sentence, the function returns false.
The false then causes the `if' to evaluate its third argument, which is
`(goto-char par-end)':  it moves point to the end of the paragraph.

   (And if the text is in a form or equivalent, and point may not move
fully, then the `constrain-to-field' function comes into play.)

   Regular expression searches are exceptionally useful and the pattern
illustrated by `re-search-forward', in which the search is the test of
an `if' expression, is handy.  You will see or write code incorporating
this pattern often.


File: eintr,  Node: forward-paragraph,  Next: etags,  Prev: forward-sentence,  Up: Regexp Search

12.4 `forward-paragraph': a Goldmine of Functions
=================================================

The `forward-paragraph' function moves point forward to the end of the
paragraph.  It is usually bound to `M-}' and makes use of a number of
functions that are important in themselves, including `let*',
`match-beginning', and `looking-at'.

   The function definition for `forward-paragraph' is considerably
longer than the function definition for `forward-sentence' because it
works with a paragraph, each line of which may begin with a fill prefix.

   A fill prefix consists of a string of characters that are repeated at
the beginning of each line.  For example, in Lisp code, it is a
convention to start each line of a paragraph-long comment with `;;; '.
In Text mode, four blank spaces make up another common fill prefix,
creating an indented paragraph.  (*Note Fill Prefix: (emacs)Fill
Prefix, for more information about fill prefixes.)

   The existence of a fill prefix means that in addition to being able
to find the end of a paragraph whose lines begin on the left-most
column, the `forward-paragraph' function must be able to find the end
of a paragraph when all or many of the lines in the buffer begin with
the fill prefix.

   Moreover, it is sometimes practical to ignore a fill prefix that
exists, especially when blank lines separate paragraphs.  This is an
added complication.

* Menu:

* forward-paragraph in brief::  Key parts of the function definition.
* fwd-para let::                The `let*' expression.
* fwd-para while::              The forward motion `while' loop.


File: eintr,  Node: forward-paragraph in brief,  Next: fwd-para let,  Prev: forward-paragraph,  Up: forward-paragraph

Shortened `forward-paragraph' function definition
-------------------------------------------------

   Rather than print all of the `forward-paragraph' function, we will
only print parts of it.  Read without preparation, the function can be
daunting!

   In outline, the function looks like this:

     (defun forward-paragraph (&optional arg)
       "DOCUMENTATION..."
       (interactive "p")
       (or arg (setq arg 1))
       (let*
           VARLIST
         (while (and (< arg 0) (not (bobp)))     ; backward-moving-code
           ...
         (while (and (> arg 0) (not (eobp)))     ; forward-moving-code
           ...

   The first parts of the function are routine: the function's argument
list consists of one optional argument.  Documentation follows.

   The lower case `p' in the `interactive' declaration means that the
processed prefix argument, if any, is passed to the function.  This
will be a number, and is the repeat count of how many paragraphs point
will move.  The `or' expression in the next line handles the common
case when no argument is passed to the function, which occurs if the
function is called from other code rather than interactively.  This
case was described earlier.  (*Note The `forward-sentence' function:
forward-sentence.)  Now we reach the end of the familiar part of this
function.


File: eintr,  Node: fwd-para let,  Next: fwd-para while,  Prev: forward-paragraph in brief,  Up: forward-paragraph

The `let*' expression
---------------------

The next line of the `forward-paragraph' function begins a `let*'
expression.  This is a different than `let'.  The symbol is `let*' not
`let'.

   The `let*' special form is like `let' except that Emacs sets each
variable in sequence, one after another, and variables in the latter
part of the varlist can make use of the values to which Emacs set
variables in the earlier part of the varlist.

   (*note `save-excursion' in `append-to-buffer': append
save-excursion.)

   In the `let*' expression in this function, Emacs binds a total of
seven variables:  `opoint', `fill-prefix-regexp', `parstart', `parsep',
`sp-parstart', `start', and `found-start'.

   The variable `parsep' appears twice, first, to remove instances of
`^', and second, to handle fill prefixes.

   The variable `opoint' is just the value of `point'.  As you can
guess, it is used in a `constrain-to-field' expression, just as in
`forward-sentence'.

   The variable `fill-prefix-regexp' is set to the value returned by
evaluating the following list:

     (and fill-prefix
          (not (equal fill-prefix ""))
          (not paragraph-ignore-fill-prefix)
          (regexp-quote fill-prefix))

This is an expression whose first element is the `and' special form.

   As we learned earlier (*note The `kill-new' function: kill-new
function.), the `and' special form evaluates each of its arguments
until one of the arguments returns a value of `nil', in which case the
`and' expression returns `nil'; however, if none of the arguments
returns a value of `nil', the value resulting from evaluating the last
argument is returned.  (Since such a value is not `nil', it is
considered true in Lisp.)  In other words, an `and' expression returns
a true value only if all its arguments are true.  

   In this case, the variable `fill-prefix-regexp' is bound to a
non-`nil' value only if the following four expressions produce a true
(i.e., a non-`nil') value when they are evaluated; otherwise,
`fill-prefix-regexp' is bound to `nil'.

`fill-prefix'
     When this variable is evaluated, the value of the fill prefix, if
     any, is returned.  If there is no fill prefix, this variable
     returns `nil'.

`(not (equal fill-prefix "")'
     This expression checks whether an existing fill prefix is an empty
     string, that is, a string with no characters in it.  An empty
     string is not a useful fill prefix.

`(not paragraph-ignore-fill-prefix)'
     This expression returns `nil' if the variable
     `paragraph-ignore-fill-prefix' has been turned on by being set to a
     true value such as `t'.

`(regexp-quote fill-prefix)'
     This is the last argument to the `and' special form.  If all the
     arguments to the `and' are true, the value resulting from
     evaluating this expression will be returned by the `and' expression
     and bound to the variable `fill-prefix-regexp',

The result of evaluating this `and' expression successfully is that
`fill-prefix-regexp' will be bound to the value of `fill-prefix' as
modified by the `regexp-quote' function.  What `regexp-quote' does is
read a string and return a regular expression that will exactly match
the string and match nothing else.  This means that
`fill-prefix-regexp' will be set to a value that will exactly match the
fill prefix if the fill prefix exists.  Otherwise, the variable will be
set to `nil'.

   The next two local variables in the `let*' expression are designed
to remove instances of `^' from `parstart' and `parsep', the local
variables which indicate the paragraph start and the paragraph
separator.  The next expression sets `parsep' again.  That is to handle
fill prefixes.

   This is the setting that requires the definition call `let*' rather
than `let'.  The true-or-false-test for the `if' depends on whether the
variable `fill-prefix-regexp' evaluates to `nil' or some other value.

   If `fill-prefix-regexp' does not have a value, Emacs evaluates the
else-part of the `if' expression and binds `parsep' to its local value.
(`parsep' is a regular expression that matches what separates
paragraphs.)

   But if `fill-prefix-regexp' does have a value, Emacs evaluates the
then-part of the `if' expression and binds `parsep' to a regular
expression that includes the `fill-prefix-regexp' as part of the
pattern.

   Specifically, `parsep' is set to the original value of the paragraph
separate regular expression concatenated with an alternative expression
that consists of the `fill-prefix-regexp' followed by optional
whitespace to the end of the line.  The whitespace is defined by
`"[ \t]*$"'.)  The `\\|' defines this portion of the regexp as an
alternative to `parsep'.

   According to a comment in the code, the next local variable,
`sp-parstart', is used for searching, and then the final two, `start'
and `found-start', are set to `nil'.

   Now we get into the body of the `let*'.  The first part of the body
of the `let*' deals with the case when the function is given a negative
argument and is therefore moving backwards.  We will skip this section.


File: eintr,  Node: fwd-para while,  Prev: fwd-para let,  Up: forward-paragraph

The forward motion `while' loop
-------------------------------

The second part of the body of the `let*' deals with forward motion.
It is a `while' loop that repeats itself so long as the value of `arg'
is greater than zero.  In the most common use of the function, the
value of the argument is 1, so the body of the `while' loop is
evaluated exactly once, and the cursor moves forward one paragraph.

   This part handles three situations: when point is between paragraphs,
when there is a fill prefix and when there is no fill prefix.

   The `while' loop looks like this:

     ;; going forwards and not at the end of the buffer
     (while (and (> arg 0) (not (eobp)))

       ;; between paragraphs
       ;; Move forward over separator lines...
       (while (and (not (eobp))
                   (progn (move-to-left-margin) (not (eobp)))
                   (looking-at parsep))
         (forward-line 1))
       ;;  This decrements the loop
       (unless (eobp) (setq arg (1- arg)))
       ;; ... and one more line.
       (forward-line 1)

       (if fill-prefix-regexp
           ;; There is a fill prefix; it overrides parstart;
           ;; we go forward line by line
           (while (and (not (eobp))
                       (progn (move-to-left-margin) (not (eobp)))
                       (not (looking-at parsep))
                       (looking-at fill-prefix-regexp))
             (forward-line 1))

         ;; There is no fill prefix;
         ;; we go forward character by character
         (while (and (re-search-forward sp-parstart nil 1)
                     (progn (setq start (match-beginning 0))
                            (goto-char start)
                            (not (eobp)))
                     (progn (move-to-left-margin)
                            (not (looking-at parsep)))
                     (or (not (looking-at parstart))
                         (and use-hard-newlines
                              (not (get-text-property (1- start) 'hard)))))
           (forward-char 1))

         ;; and if there is no fill prefix and if we are not at the end,
         ;;     go to whatever was found in the regular expression search
         ;;     for sp-parstart
         (if (< (point) (point-max))
             (goto-char start))))

   We can see that this is a decrementing counter `while' loop, using
the expression `(setq arg (1- arg))' as the decrementer.  That
expression is not far from the `while', but is hidden in another Lisp
macro, an `unless' macro.  Unless we are at the end of the buffer --
that is what the `eobp' function determines; it is an abbreviation of
`End Of Buffer P' -- we decrease the value of `arg' by one.

   (If we are at the end of the buffer, we cannot go forward any more
and the next loop of the `while' expression will test false since the
test is an `and' with `(not (eobp))'.  The `not' function means exactly
as you expect; it is another name for `null', a function that returns
true when its argument is false.)

   Interestingly, the loop count is not decremented until we leave the
space between paragraphs, unless we come to the end of buffer or stop
seeing the local value of the paragraph separator.

   That second `while' also has a `(move-to-left-margin)' expression.
The function is self-explanatory.  It is inside a `progn' expression
and not the last element of its body, so it is only invoked for its
side effect, which is to move point to the left margin of the current
line.

   The `looking-at' function is also self-explanatory; it returns true
if the text after point matches the regular expression given as its
argument.

   The rest of the body of the loop looks difficult at first, but makes
sense as you come to understand it.

   First consider what happens if there is a fill prefix:

       (if fill-prefix-regexp
           ;; There is a fill prefix; it overrides parstart;
           ;; we go forward line by line
           (while (and (not (eobp))
                       (progn (move-to-left-margin) (not (eobp)))
                       (not (looking-at parsep))
                       (looking-at fill-prefix-regexp))
             (forward-line 1))

This expression moves point forward line by line so long as four
conditions are true:

  1. Point is not at the end of the buffer.

  2. We can move to the left margin of the text and are not at the end
     of the buffer.

  3. The text following point does not separate paragraphs.

  4. The pattern following point is the fill prefix regular expression.

   The last condition may be puzzling, until you remember that point was
moved to the beginning of the line early in the `forward-paragraph'
function.  This means that if the text has a fill prefix, the
`looking-at' function will see it.

   Consider what happens when there is no fill prefix.

         (while (and (re-search-forward sp-parstart nil 1)
                     (progn (setq start (match-beginning 0))
                            (goto-char start)
                            (not (eobp)))
                     (progn (move-to-left-margin)
                            (not (looking-at parsep)))
                     (or (not (looking-at parstart))
                         (and use-hard-newlines
                              (not (get-text-property (1- start) 'hard)))))
           (forward-char 1))

This `while' loop has us searching forward for `sp-parstart', which is
the combination of possible whitespace with a the local value of the
start of a paragraph or of a paragraph separator.  (The latter two are
within an expression starting `\(?:' so that they are not referenced by
the `match-beginning' function.)

   The two expressions,

     (setq start (match-beginning 0))
     (goto-char start)

mean go to the start of the text matched by the regular expression
search.

   The `(match-beginning 0)' expression is new.  It returns a number
specifying the location of the start of the text that was matched by
the last search.

   The `match-beginning' function is used here because of a
characteristic of a forward search: a successful forward search,
regardless of whether it is a plain search or a regular expression
search, moves point to the end of the text that is found.  In this
case, a successful search moves point to the end of the pattern for
`sp-parstart'.

   However, we want to put point at the end of the current paragraph,
not somewhere else.  Indeed, since the search possibly includes the
paragraph separator, point may end up at the beginning of the next one
unless we use an expression that includes `match-beginning'.

   When given an argument of 0, `match-beginning' returns the position
that is the start of the text matched by the most recent search.  In
this case, the most recent search looks for `sp-parstart'.  The
`(match-beginning 0)' expression returns the beginning position of that
pattern, rather than the end position of that pattern.

   (Incidentally, when passed a positive number as an argument, the
`match-beginning' function returns the location of point at that
parenthesized expression in the last search unless that parenthesized
expression begins with `\(?:'.  I don't know why `\(?:' appears here
since the argument is 0.)

   The last expression when there is no fill prefix is

     (if (< (point) (point-max))
         (goto-char start))))

This says that if there is no fill prefix and if we are not at the end,
point should move to the beginning of whatever was found by the regular
expression search for `sp-parstart'.

   The full definition for the `forward-paragraph' function not only
includes code for going forwards, but also code for going backwards.

   If you are reading this inside of GNU Emacs and you want to see the
whole function, you can type `C-h f' (`describe-function') and the name
of the function.  This gives you the function documentation and the
name of the library containing the function's source.  Place point over
the name of the library and press the RET key; you will be taken
directly to the source.  (Be sure to install your sources!  Without
them, you are like a person who tries to drive a car with his eyes
shut!)


File: eintr,  Node: etags,  Next: Regexp Review,  Prev: forward-paragraph,  Up: Regexp Search

12.5 Create Your Own `TAGS' File
================================

Besides `C-h f' (`describe-function'), another way to see the source of
a function is to type `M-.' (`find-tag') and the name of the function
when prompted for it.  This is a good habit to get into.  The `M-.'
(`find-tag') command takes you directly to the source for a function,
variable, or node.  The function depends on tags tables to tell it
where to go.

   If the `find-tag' function first asks you for the name of a `TAGS'
table, give it the name of a `TAGS' file such as
`/usr/local/src/emacs/src/TAGS'.  (The exact path to your `TAGS' file
depends on how your copy of Emacs was installed.  I just told you the
location that provides both my C and my Emacs Lisp sources.)

   You can also create your own `TAGS' file for directories that lack
one.

   You often need to build and install tags tables yourself.  They are
not built automatically.  A tags table is called a `TAGS' file; the
name is in upper case letters.

   You can create a `TAGS' file by calling the `etags' program that
comes as a part of the Emacs distribution.  Usually, `etags' is
compiled and installed when Emacs is built.  (`etags' is not an Emacs
Lisp function or a part of Emacs; it is a C program.)

   To create a `TAGS' file, first switch to the directory in which you
want to create the file.  In Emacs you can do this with the `M-x cd'
command, or by visiting a file in the directory, or by listing the
directory with `C-x d' (`dired').  Then run the compile command, with
`etags *.el' as the command to execute

     M-x compile RET etags *.el RET

to create a `TAGS' file for Emacs Lisp.

   For example, if you have a large number of files in your `~/emacs'
directory, as I do--I have 137 `.el' files in it, of which I load
12--you can create a `TAGS' file for the Emacs Lisp files in that
directory.

   The `etags' program takes all the usual shell `wildcards'.  For
example, if you have two directories for which you want a single `TAGS'
file, type `etags *.el ../elisp/*.el', where `../elisp/' is the second
directory:

     M-x compile RET etags *.el ../elisp/*.el RET

   Type

     M-x compile RET etags --help RET

to see a list of the options accepted by `etags' as well as a list of
supported languages.

   The `etags' program handles more than 20 languages, including Emacs
Lisp, Common Lisp, Scheme, C, C++, Ada, Fortran, HTML, Java, LaTeX,
Pascal, Perl, Postscript, Python, TeX, Texinfo, makefiles, and most
assemblers.  The program has no switches for specifying the language;
it recognizes the language in an input file according to its file name
and contents.

   `etags' is very helpful when you are writing code yourself and want
to refer back to functions you have already written.  Just run `etags'
again at intervals as you write new functions, so they become part of
the `TAGS' file.

   If you think an appropriate `TAGS' file already exists for what you
want, but do not know where it is, you can use the `locate' program to
attempt to find it.

   Type `M-x locate <RET> TAGS <RET>' and Emacs will list for you the
full path names of all your `TAGS' files.  On my system, this command
lists 34 `TAGS' files.  On the other hand, a `plain vanilla' system I
recently installed did not contain any `TAGS' files.

   If the tags table you want has been created, you can use the `M-x
visit-tags-table' command to specify it.  Otherwise, you will need to
create the tag table yourself and then use `M-x visit-tags-table'.

Building Tags in the Emacs sources
..................................

The GNU Emacs sources come with a `Makefile' that contains a
sophisticated `etags' command that creates, collects, and merges tags
tables from all over the Emacs sources and puts the information into
one `TAGS' file in the `src/' directory. (The `src/' directory is below
the top level of your Emacs directory.)

   To build this `TAGS' file, go to the top level of your Emacs source
directory and run the compile command `make tags':

     M-x compile RET make tags RET

(The `make tags' command works well with the GNU Emacs sources, as well
as with some other source packages.)

   For more information, see *note Tag Tables: (emacs)Tags.


File: eintr,  Node: Regexp Review,  Next: re-search Exercises,  Prev: etags,  Up: Regexp Search

12.6 Review
===========

Here is a brief summary of some recently introduced functions.

`while'
     Repeatedly evaluate the body of the expression so long as the first
     element of the body tests true.  Then return `nil'.  (The
     expression is evaluated only for its side effects.)

     For example:

          (let ((foo 2))
            (while (> foo 0)
              (insert (format "foo is %d.\n" foo))
              (setq foo (1- foo))))

               =>      foo is 2.
                       foo is 1.
                       nil

     (The `insert' function inserts its arguments at point; the
     `format' function returns a string formatted from its arguments
     the way `message' formats its arguments; `\n' produces a new line.)

`re-search-forward'
     Search for a pattern, and if the pattern is found, move point to
     rest just after it.

     Takes four arguments, like `search-forward':

       1. A regular expression that specifies the pattern to search for.
          (Remember to put quotation marks around this argument!)

       2. Optionally, the limit of the search.

       3. Optionally, what to do if the search fails, return `nil' or an
          error message.

       4. Optionally, how many times to repeat the search; if negative,
          the search goes backwards.

`let*'
     Bind some variables locally to particular values, and then
     evaluate the remaining arguments, returning the value of the last
     one.  While binding the local variables, use the local values of
     variables bound earlier, if any.

     For example:

          (let* ((foo 7)
                (bar (* 3 foo)))
            (message "`bar' is %d." bar))
               => `bar' is 21.

`match-beginning'
     Return the position of the start of the text found by the last
     regular expression search.

`looking-at'
     Return `t' for true if the text after point matches the argument,
     which should be a regular expression.

`eobp'
     Return `t' for true if point is at the end of the accessible part
     of a buffer.  The end of the accessible part is the end of the
     buffer if the buffer is not narrowed; it is the end of the
     narrowed part if the buffer is narrowed.


File: eintr,  Node: re-search Exercises,  Prev: Regexp Review,  Up: Regexp Search

12.7 Exercises with `re-search-forward'
=======================================

   * Write a function to search for a regular expression that matches
     two or more blank lines in sequence.

   * Write a function to search for duplicated words, such as `the the'.
     *Note Syntax of Regular Expressions: (emacs)Regexps, for
     information on how to write a regexp (a regular expression) to
     match a string that is composed of two identical halves.  You can
     devise several regexps; some are better than others.  The function
     I use is described in an appendix, along with several regexps.
     *Note `the-the' Duplicated Words Function: the-the.


File: eintr,  Node: Counting Words,  Next: Words in a defun,  Prev: Regexp Search,  Up: Top

13 Counting: Repetition and Regexps
***********************************

Repetition and regular expression searches are powerful tools that you
often use when you write code in Emacs Lisp.  This chapter illustrates
the use of regular expression searches through the construction of word
count commands using `while' loops and recursion.

* Menu:

* Why Count Words::
* count-words-region::          Use a regexp, but find a problem.
* recursive-count-words::       Start with case of no words in region.
* Counting Exercise::


File: eintr,  Node: Why Count Words,  Next: count-words-region,  Prev: Counting Words,  Up: Counting Words

Counting words
==============

   The standard Emacs distribution contains a function for counting the
number of lines within a region.  However, there is no corresponding
function for counting words.

   Certain types of writing ask you to count words.  Thus, if you write
an essay, you may be limited to 800 words; if you write a novel, you
may discipline yourself to write 1000 words a day.  It seems odd to me
that Emacs lacks a word count command.  Perhaps people use Emacs mostly
for code or types of documentation that do not require word counts; or
perhaps they restrict themselves to the operating system word count
command, `wc'.  Alternatively, people may follow the publishers'
convention and compute a word count by dividing the number of
characters in a document by five.  In any event, here are commands to
count words.


File: eintr,  Node: count-words-region,  Next: recursive-count-words,  Prev: Why Count Words,  Up: Counting Words

13.1 The `count-words-region' Function
======================================

A word count command could count words in a line, paragraph, region, or
buffer.  What should the command cover?  You could design the command
to count the number of words in a complete buffer.  However, the Emacs
tradition encourages flexibility--you may want to count words in just a
section, rather than all of a buffer.  So it makes more sense to design
the command to count the number of words in a region.  Once you have a
`count-words-region' command, you can, if you wish, count words in a
whole buffer by marking it with `C-x h' (`mark-whole-buffer').

   Clearly, counting words is a repetitive act: starting from the
beginning of the region, you count the first word, then the second
word, then the third word, and so on, until you reach the end of the
region.  This means that word counting is ideally suited to recursion
or to a `while' loop.

* Menu:

* Design count-words-region::   The definition using a `while' loop.
* Whitespace Bug::              The Whitespace Bug in `count-words-region'.


File: eintr,  Node: Design count-words-region,  Next: Whitespace Bug,  Prev: count-words-region,  Up: count-words-region

Designing `count-words-region'
------------------------------

   First, we will implement the word count command with a `while' loop,
then with recursion.  The command will, of course, be interactive.

   The template for an interactive function definition is, as always:

     (defun NAME-OF-FUNCTION (ARGUMENT-LIST)
       "DOCUMENTATION..."
       (INTERACTIVE-EXPRESSION...)
       BODY...)

   What we need to do is fill in the slots.

   The name of the function should be self-explanatory and similar to
the existing `count-lines-region' name.  This makes the name easier to
remember.  `count-words-region' is a good choice.

   The function counts words within a region.  This means that the
argument list must contain symbols that are bound to the two positions,
the beginning and end of the region.  These two positions can be called
`beginning' and `end' respectively.  The first line of the
documentation should be a single sentence, since that is all that is
printed as documentation by a command such as `apropos'.  The
interactive expression will be of the form `(interactive "r")', since
that will cause Emacs to pass the beginning and end of the region to
the function's argument list.  All this is routine.

   The body of the function needs to be written to do three tasks:
first, to set up conditions under which the `while' loop can count
words, second, to run the `while' loop, and third, to send a message to
the user.

   When a user calls `count-words-region', point may be at the
beginning or the end of the region.  However, the counting process must
start at the beginning of the region.  This means we will want to put
point there if it is not already there.  Executing `(goto-char
beginning)' ensures this.  Of course, we will want to return point to
its expected position when the function finishes its work.  For this
reason, the body must be enclosed in a `save-excursion' expression.

   The central part of the body of the function consists of a `while'
loop in which one expression jumps point forward word by word, and
another expression counts those jumps.  The true-or-false-test of the
`while' loop should test true so long as point should jump forward, and
false when point is at the end of the region.

   We could use `(forward-word 1)' as the expression for moving point
forward word by word, but it is easier to see what Emacs identifies as a
`word' if we use a regular expression search.

   A regular expression search that finds the pattern for which it is
searching leaves point after the last character matched.  This means
that a succession of successful word searches will move point forward
word by word.

   As a practical matter, we want the regular expression search to jump
over whitespace and punctuation between words as well as over the words
themselves.  A regexp that refuses to jump over interword whitespace
would never jump more than one word!  This means that the regexp should
include the whitespace and punctuation that follows a word, if any, as
well as the word itself.  (A word may end a buffer and not have any
following whitespace or punctuation, so that part of the regexp must be
optional.)

   Thus, what we want for the regexp is a pattern defining one or more
word constituent characters followed, optionally, by one or more
characters that are not word constituents.  The regular expression for
this is:

     \w+\W*

The buffer's syntax table determines which characters are and are not
word constituents.  (*Note What Constitutes a Word or Symbol?: Syntax,
for more about syntax.  Also, see *note Syntax: (emacs)Syntax, and
*note Syntax Tables: (elisp)Syntax Tables.)

   The search expression looks like this:

     (re-search-forward "\\w+\\W*")

(Note that paired backslashes precede the `w' and `W'.  A single
backslash has special meaning to the Emacs Lisp interpreter.  It
indicates that the following character is interpreted differently than
usual.  For example, the two characters, `\n', stand for `newline',
rather than for a backslash followed by `n'.  Two backslashes in a row
stand for an ordinary, `unspecial' backslash, so Emacs Lisp interpreter
ends of seeing a single backslash followed by a letter.  So it
discovers the letter is special.)

   We need a counter to count how many words there are; this variable
must first be set to 0 and then incremented each time Emacs goes around
the `while' loop.  The incrementing expression is simply:

     (setq count (1+ count))

   Finally, we want to tell the user how many words there are in the
region.  The `message' function is intended for presenting this kind of
information to the user.  The message has to be phrased so that it
reads properly regardless of how many words there are in the region: we
don't want to say that "there are 1 words in the region".  The conflict
between singular and plural is ungrammatical.  We can solve this
problem by using a conditional expression that evaluates different
messages depending on the number of words in the region.  There are
three possibilities: no words in the region, one word in the region,
and more than one word.  This means that the `cond' special form is
appropriate.

   All this leads to the following function definition:

     ;;; First version; has bugs!
     (defun count-words-region (beginning end)
       "Print number of words in the region.
     Words are defined as at least one word-constituent
     character followed by at least one character that
     is not a word-constituent.  The buffer's syntax
     table determines which characters these are."
       (interactive "r")
       (message "Counting words in region ... ")

     ;;; 1. Set up appropriate conditions.
       (save-excursion
         (goto-char beginning)
         (let ((count 0))

     ;;; 2. Run the while loop.
           (while (< (point) end)
             (re-search-forward "\\w+\\W*")
             (setq count (1+ count)))

     ;;; 3. Send a message to the user.
           (cond ((zerop count)
                  (message
                   "The region does NOT have any words."))
                 ((= 1 count)
                  (message
                   "The region has 1 word."))
                 (t
                  (message
                   "The region has %d words." count))))))

As written, the function works, but not in all circumstances.


File: eintr,  Node: Whitespace Bug,  Prev: Design count-words-region,  Up: count-words-region

13.1.1 The Whitespace Bug in `count-words-region'
-------------------------------------------------

The `count-words-region' command described in the preceding section has
two bugs, or rather, one bug with two manifestations.  First, if you
mark a region containing only whitespace in the middle of some text,
the `count-words-region' command tells you that the region contains one
word!  Second, if you mark a region containing only whitespace at the
end of the buffer or the accessible portion of a narrowed buffer, the
command displays an error message that looks like this:

     Search failed: "\\w+\\W*"

   If you are reading this in Info in GNU Emacs, you can test for these
bugs yourself.

   First, evaluate the function in the usual manner to install it.
Here is a copy of the definition.  Place your cursor after the closing
parenthesis and type `C-x C-e' to install it.

     ;; First version; has bugs!
     (defun count-words-region (beginning end)
       "Print number of words in the region.
     Words are defined as at least one word-constituent character followed
     by at least one character that is not a word-constituent.  The buffer's
     syntax table determines which characters these are."
       (interactive "r")
       (message "Counting words in region ... ")

     ;;; 1. Set up appropriate conditions.
       (save-excursion
         (goto-char beginning)
         (let ((count 0))

     ;;; 2. Run the while loop.
           (while (< (point) end)
             (re-search-forward "\\w+\\W*")
             (setq count (1+ count)))

     ;;; 3. Send a message to the user.
           (cond ((zerop count)
                  (message "The region does NOT have any words."))
                 ((= 1 count) (message "The region has 1 word."))
                 (t (message "The region has %d words." count))))))

   If you wish, you can also install this keybinding by evaluating it:

     (global-set-key "\C-c=" 'count-words-region)

   To conduct the first test, set mark and point to the beginning and
end of the following line and then type `C-c =' (or `M-x
count-words-region' if you have not bound `C-c ='):

         one   two  three

Emacs will tell you, correctly, that the region has three words.

   Repeat the test, but place mark at the beginning of the line and
place point just _before_ the word `one'.  Again type the command `C-c
=' (or `M-x count-words-region').  Emacs should tell you that the
region has no words, since it is composed only of the whitespace at the
beginning of the line.  But instead Emacs tells you that the region has
one word!

   For the third test, copy the sample line to the end of the
`*scratch*' buffer and then type several spaces at the end of the line.
Place mark right after the word `three' and point at the end of line.
(The end of the line will be the end of the buffer.)  Type `C-c =' (or
`M-x count-words-region') as you did before.  Again, Emacs should tell
you that the region has no words, since it is composed only of the
whitespace at the end of the line.  Instead, Emacs displays an error
message saying `Search failed'.

   The two bugs stem from the same problem.

   Consider the first manifestation of the bug, in which the command
tells you that the whitespace at the beginning of the line contains one
word.  What happens is this: The `M-x count-words-region' command moves
point to the beginning of the region.  The `while' tests whether the
value of point is smaller than the value of `end', which it is.
Consequently, the regular expression search looks for and finds the
first word.  It leaves point after the word.  `count' is set to one.
The `while' loop repeats; but this time the value of point is larger
than the value of `end', the loop is exited; and the function displays
a message saying the number of words in the region is one.  In brief,
the regular expression search looks for and finds the word even though
it is outside the marked region.

   In the second manifestation of the bug, the region is whitespace at
the end of the buffer.  Emacs says `Search failed'.  What happens is
that the true-or-false-test in the `while' loop tests true, so the
search expression is executed.  But since there are no more words in
the buffer, the search fails.

   In both manifestations of the bug, the search extends or attempts to
extend outside of the region.

   The solution is to limit the search to the region--this is a fairly
simple action, but as you may have come to expect, it is not quite as
simple as you might think.

   As we have seen, the `re-search-forward' function takes a search
pattern as its first argument.  But in addition to this first,
mandatory argument, it accepts three optional arguments.  The optional
second argument bounds the search.  The optional third argument, if
`t', causes the function to return `nil' rather than signal an error if
the search fails.  The optional fourth argument is a repeat count.  (In
Emacs, you can see a function's documentation by typing `C-h f', the
name of the function, and then <RET>.)

   In the `count-words-region' definition, the value of the end of the
region is held by the variable `end' which is passed as an argument to
the function.  Thus, we can add `end' as an argument to the regular
expression search expression:

     (re-search-forward "\\w+\\W*" end)

   However, if you make only this change to the `count-words-region'
definition and then test the new version of the definition on a stretch
of whitespace, you will receive an error message saying `Search failed'.

   What happens is this: the search is limited to the region, and fails
as you expect because there are no word-constituent characters in the
region.  Since it fails, we receive an error message.  But we do not
want to receive an error message in this case; we want to receive the
message that "The region does NOT have any words."

   The solution to this problem is to provide `re-search-forward' with
a third argument of `t', which causes the function to return `nil'
rather than signal an error if the search fails.

   However, if you make this change and try it, you will see the message
"Counting words in region ... " and ... you will keep on seeing that
message ..., until you type `C-g' (`keyboard-quit').

   Here is what happens: the search is limited to the region, as before,
and it fails because there are no word-constituent characters in the
region, as expected.  Consequently, the `re-search-forward' expression
returns `nil'.  It does nothing else.  In particular, it does not move
point, which it does as a side effect if it finds the search target.
After the `re-search-forward' expression returns `nil', the next
expression in the `while' loop is evaluated.  This expression
increments the count.  Then the loop repeats.  The true-or-false-test
tests true because the value of point is still less than the value of
end, since the `re-search-forward' expression did not move point. ...
and the cycle repeats ...

   The `count-words-region' definition requires yet another
modification, to cause the true-or-false-test of the `while' loop to
test false if the search fails.  Put another way, there are two
conditions that must be satisfied in the true-or-false-test before the
word count variable is incremented: point must still be within the
region and the search expression must have found a word to count.

   Since both the first condition and the second condition must be true
together, the two expressions, the region test and the search
expression, can be joined with an `and' special form and embedded in
the `while' loop as the true-or-false-test, like this:

     (and (< (point) end) (re-search-forward "\\w+\\W*" end t))

(*Note The `kill-new' function: kill-new function, for information
about `and'.)

   The `re-search-forward' expression returns `t' if the search
succeeds and as a side effect moves point.  Consequently, as words are
found, point is moved through the region.  When the search expression
fails to find another word, or when point reaches the end of the
region, the true-or-false-test tests false, the `while' loop exits, and
the `count-words-region' function displays one or other of its messages.

   After incorporating these final changes, the `count-words-region'
works without bugs (or at least, without bugs that I have found!).
Here is what it looks like:

     ;;; Final version: `while'
     (defun count-words-region (beginning end)
       "Print number of words in the region."
       (interactive "r")
       (message "Counting words in region ... ")

     ;;; 1. Set up appropriate conditions.
       (save-excursion
         (let ((count 0))
           (goto-char beginning)

     ;;; 2. Run the while loop.
           (while (and (< (point) end)
                       (re-search-forward "\\w+\\W*" end t))
             (setq count (1+ count)))

     ;;; 3. Send a message to the user.
           (cond ((zerop count)
                  (message
                   "The region does NOT have any words."))
                 ((= 1 count)
                  (message
                   "The region has 1 word."))
                 (t
                  (message
                   "The region has %d words." count))))))


File: eintr,  Node: recursive-count-words,  Next: Counting Exercise,  Prev: count-words-region,  Up: Counting Words

13.2 Count Words Recursively
============================

You can write the function for counting words recursively as well as
with a `while' loop.  Let's see how this is done.

   First, we need to recognize that the `count-words-region' function
has three jobs: it sets up the appropriate conditions for counting to
occur; it counts the words in the region; and it sends a message to the
user telling how many words there are.

   If we write a single recursive function to do everything, we will
receive a message for every recursive call.  If the region contains 13
words, we will receive thirteen messages, one right after the other.
We don't want this!  Instead, we must write two functions to do the
job, one of which (the recursive function) will be used inside of the
other.  One function will set up the conditions and display the
message; the other will return the word count.

   Let us start with the function that causes the message to be
displayed.  We can continue to call this `count-words-region'.

   This is the function that the user will call.  It will be
interactive.  Indeed, it will be similar to our previous versions of
this function, except that it will call `recursive-count-words' to
determine how many words are in the region.

   We can readily construct a template for this function, based on our
previous versions:

     ;; Recursive version; uses regular expression search
     (defun count-words-region (beginning end)
       "DOCUMENTATION..."
       (INTERACTIVE-EXPRESSION...)

     ;;; 1. Set up appropriate conditions.
       (EXPLANATORY MESSAGE)
       (SET-UP FUNCTIONS...

     ;;; 2. Count the words.
         RECURSIVE CALL

     ;;; 3. Send a message to the user.
         MESSAGE PROVIDING WORD COUNT))

   The definition looks straightforward, except that somehow the count
returned by the recursive call must be passed to the message displaying
the word count.  A little thought suggests that this can be done by
making use of a `let' expression: we can bind a variable in the varlist
of a `let' expression to the number of words in the region, as returned
by the recursive call; and then the `cond' expression, using binding,
can display the value to the user.

   Often, one thinks of the binding within a `let' expression as
somehow secondary to the `primary' work of a function.  But in this
case, what you might consider the `primary' job of the function,
counting words, is done within the `let' expression.

   Using `let', the function definition looks like this:

     (defun count-words-region (beginning end)
       "Print number of words in the region."
       (interactive "r")

     ;;; 1. Set up appropriate conditions.
       (message "Counting words in region ... ")
       (save-excursion
         (goto-char beginning)

     ;;; 2. Count the words.
         (let ((count (recursive-count-words end)))

     ;;; 3. Send a message to the user.
           (cond ((zerop count)
                  (message
                   "The region does NOT have any words."))
                 ((= 1 count)
                  (message
                   "The region has 1 word."))
                 (t
                  (message
                   "The region has %d words." count))))))

   Next, we need to write the recursive counting function.

   A recursive function has at least three parts: the `do-again-test',
the `next-step-expression', and the recursive call.

   The do-again-test determines whether the function will or will not be
called again.  Since we are counting words in a region and can use a
function that moves point forward for every word, the do-again-test can
check whether point is still within the region.  The do-again-test
should find the value of point and determine whether point is before,
at, or after the value of the end of the region.  We can use the
`point' function to locate point.  Clearly, we must pass the value of
the end of the region to the recursive counting function as an argument.

   In addition, the do-again-test should also test whether the search
finds a word.  If it does not, the function should not call itself
again.

   The next-step-expression changes a value so that when the recursive
function is supposed to stop calling itself, it stops.  More precisely,
the next-step-expression changes a value so that at the right time, the
do-again-test stops the recursive function from calling itself again.
In this case, the next-step-expression can be the expression that moves
point forward, word by word.

   The third part of a recursive function is the recursive call.

   Somewhere, also, we also need a part that does the `work' of the
function, a part that does the counting.  A vital part!

   But already, we have an outline of the recursive counting function:

     (defun recursive-count-words (region-end)
       "DOCUMENTATION..."
        DO-AGAIN-TEST
        NEXT-STEP-EXPRESSION
        RECURSIVE CALL)

   Now we need to fill in the slots.  Let's start with the simplest
cases first:  if point is at or beyond the end of the region, there
cannot be any words in the region, so the function should return zero.
Likewise, if the search fails, there are no words to count, so the
function should return zero.

   On the other hand, if point is within the region and the search
succeeds, the function should call itself again.

   Thus, the do-again-test should look like this:

     (and (< (point) region-end)
          (re-search-forward "\\w+\\W*" region-end t))

   Note that the search expression is part of the do-again-test--the
function returns `t' if its search succeeds and `nil' if it fails.
(*Note The Whitespace Bug in `count-words-region': Whitespace Bug, for
an explanation of how `re-search-forward' works.)

   The do-again-test is the true-or-false test of an `if' clause.
Clearly, if the do-again-test succeeds, the then-part of the `if'
clause should call the function again; but if it fails, the else-part
should return zero since either point is outside the region or the
search failed because there were no words to find.

   But before considering the recursive call, we need to consider the
next-step-expression.  What is it?  Interestingly, it is the search
part of the do-again-test.

   In addition to returning `t' or `nil' for the do-again-test,
`re-search-forward' moves point forward as a side effect of a
successful search.  This is the action that changes the value of point
so that the recursive function stops calling itself when point
completes its movement through the region.  Consequently, the
`re-search-forward' expression is the next-step-expression.

   In outline, then, the body of the `recursive-count-words' function
looks like this:

     (if DO-AGAIN-TEST-AND-NEXT-STEP-COMBINED
         ;; then
         RECURSIVE-CALL-RETURNING-COUNT
       ;; else
       RETURN-ZERO)

   How to incorporate the mechanism that counts?

   If you are not used to writing recursive functions, a question like
this can be troublesome.  But it can and should be approached
systematically.

   We know that the counting mechanism should be associated in some way
with the recursive call.  Indeed, since the next-step-expression moves
point forward by one word, and since a recursive call is made for each
word, the counting mechanism must be an expression that adds one to the
value returned by a call to `recursive-count-words'.

   Consider several cases:

   * If there are two words in the region, the function should return a
     value resulting from adding one to the value returned when it
     counts the first word, plus the number returned when it counts the
     remaining words in the region, which in this case is one.

   * If there is one word in the region, the function should return a
     value resulting from adding one to the value returned when it
     counts that word, plus the number returned when it counts the
     remaining words in the region, which in this case is zero.

   * If there are no words in the region, the function should return
     zero.

   From the sketch we can see that the else-part of the `if' returns
zero for the case of no words.  This means that the then-part of the
`if' must return a value resulting from adding one to the value
returned from a count of the remaining words.

   The expression will look like this, where `1+' is a function that
adds one to its argument.

     (1+ (recursive-count-words region-end))

   The whole `recursive-count-words' function will then look like this:

     (defun recursive-count-words (region-end)
       "DOCUMENTATION..."

     ;;; 1. do-again-test
       (if (and (< (point) region-end)
                (re-search-forward "\\w+\\W*" region-end t))

     ;;; 2. then-part: the recursive call
           (1+ (recursive-count-words region-end))

     ;;; 3. else-part
         0))

   Let's examine how this works:

   If there are no words in the region, the else part of the `if'
expression is evaluated and consequently the function returns zero.

   If there is one word in the region, the value of point is less than
the value of `region-end' and the search succeeds.  In this case, the
true-or-false-test of the `if' expression tests true, and the then-part
of the `if' expression is evaluated.  The counting expression is
evaluated.  This expression returns a value (which will be the value
returned by the whole function) that is the sum of one added to the
value returned by a recursive call.

   Meanwhile, the next-step-expression has caused point to jump over the
first (and in this case only) word in the region.  This means that when
`(recursive-count-words region-end)' is evaluated a second time, as a
result of the recursive call, the value of point will be equal to or
greater than the value of region end.  So this time,
`recursive-count-words' will return zero.  The zero will be added to
one, and the original evaluation of `recursive-count-words' will return
one plus zero, which is one, which is the correct amount.

   Clearly, if there are two words in the region, the first call to
`recursive-count-words' returns one added to the value returned by
calling `recursive-count-words' on a region containing the remaining
word--that is, it adds one to one, producing two, which is the correct
amount.

   Similarly, if there are three words in the region, the first call to
`recursive-count-words' returns one added to the value returned by
calling `recursive-count-words' on a region containing the remaining
two words--and so on and so on.

With full documentation the two functions look like this:

The recursive function:

     (defun recursive-count-words (region-end)
       "Number of words between point and REGION-END."

     ;;; 1. do-again-test
       (if (and (< (point) region-end)
                (re-search-forward "\\w+\\W*" region-end t))

     ;;; 2. then-part: the recursive call
           (1+ (recursive-count-words region-end))

     ;;; 3. else-part
         0))

The wrapper:

     ;;; Recursive version
     (defun count-words-region (beginning end)
       "Print number of words in the region.

     Words are defined as at least one word-constituent
     character followed by at least one character that is
     not a word-constituent.  The buffer's syntax table
     determines which characters these are."
       (interactive "r")
       (message "Counting words in region ... ")
       (save-excursion
         (goto-char beginning)
         (let ((count (recursive-count-words end)))
           (cond ((zerop count)
                  (message
                   "The region does NOT have any words."))
                 ((= 1 count)
                  (message "The region has 1 word."))
                 (t
                  (message
                   "The region has %d words." count))))))


File: eintr,  Node: Counting Exercise,  Prev: recursive-count-words,  Up: Counting Words

13.3 Exercise: Counting Punctuation
===================================

Using a `while' loop, write a function to count the number of
punctuation marks in a region--period, comma, semicolon, colon,
exclamation mark, and question mark.  Do the same using recursion.


File: eintr,  Node: Words in a defun,  Next: Readying a Graph,  Prev: Counting Words,  Up: Top

14 Counting Words in a `defun'
******************************

Our next project is to count the number of words in a function
definition.  Clearly, this can be done using some variant of
`count-word-region'.  *Note Counting Words: Repetition and Regexps:
Counting Words.  If we are just going to count the words in one
definition, it is easy enough to mark the definition with the `C-M-h'
(`mark-defun') command, and then call `count-word-region'.

   However, I am more ambitious: I want to count the words and symbols
in every definition in the Emacs sources and then print a graph that
shows how many functions there are of each length: how many contain 40
to 49 words or symbols, how many contain 50 to 59 words or symbols, and
so on.  I have often been curious how long a typical function is, and
this will tell.

* Menu:

* Divide and Conquer::
* Words and Symbols::           What to count?
* Syntax::                      What constitutes a word or symbol?
* count-words-in-defun::        Very like `count-words'.
* Several defuns::              Counting several defuns in a file.
* Find a File::                 Do you want to look at a file?
* lengths-list-file::           A list of the lengths of many definitions.
* Several files::               Counting in definitions in different files.
* Several files recursively::   Recursively counting in different files.
* Prepare the data::            Prepare the data for display in a graph.


File: eintr,  Node: Divide and Conquer,  Next: Words and Symbols,  Prev: Words in a defun,  Up: Words in a defun

Divide and Conquer
==================

   Described in one phrase, the histogram project is daunting; but
divided into numerous small steps, each of which we can take one at a
time, the project becomes less fearsome.  Let us consider what the
steps must be:

   * First, write a function to count the words in one definition.  This
     includes the problem of handling symbols as well as words.

   * Second, write a function to list the numbers of words in each
     function in a file.  This function can use the
     `count-words-in-defun' function.

   * Third, write a function to list the numbers of words in each
     function in each of several files.  This entails automatically
     finding the various files, switching to them, and counting the
     words in the definitions within them.

   * Fourth, write a function to convert the list of numbers that we
     created in step three to a form that will be suitable for printing
     as a graph.

   * Fifth, write a function to print the results as a graph.

   This is quite a project!  But if we take each step slowly, it will
not be difficult.


File: eintr,  Node: Words and Symbols,  Next: Syntax,  Prev: Divide and Conquer,  Up: Words in a defun

14.1 What to Count?
===================

When we first start thinking about how to count the words in a function
definition, the first question is (or ought to be) what are we going to
count?  When we speak of `words' with respect to a Lisp function
definition, we are actually speaking, in large part, of `symbols'.  For
example, the following `multiply-by-seven' function contains the five
symbols `defun', `multiply-by-seven', `number', `*', and `7'.  In
addition, in the documentation string, it contains the four words
`Multiply', `NUMBER', `by', and `seven'.  The symbol `number' is
repeated, so the definition contains a total of ten words and symbols.

     (defun multiply-by-seven (number)
       "Multiply NUMBER by seven."
       (* 7 number))

However, if we mark the `multiply-by-seven' definition with `C-M-h'
(`mark-defun'), and then call `count-words-region' on it, we will find
that `count-words-region' claims the definition has eleven words, not
ten!  Something is wrong!

   The problem is twofold: `count-words-region' does not count the `*'
as a word, and it counts the single symbol, `multiply-by-seven', as
containing three words.  The hyphens are treated as if they were
interword spaces rather than intraword connectors: `multiply-by-seven'
is counted as if it were written `multiply by seven'.

   The cause of this confusion is the regular expression search within
the `count-words-region' definition that moves point forward word by
word.  In the canonical version of `count-words-region', the regexp is:

     "\\w+\\W*"

This regular expression is a pattern defining one or more word
constituent characters possibly followed by one or more characters that
are not word constituents.  What is meant by `word constituent
characters' brings us to the issue of syntax, which is worth a section
of its own.


File: eintr,  Node: Syntax,  Next: count-words-in-defun,  Prev: Words and Symbols,  Up: Words in a defun

14.2 What Constitutes a Word or Symbol?
=======================================

Emacs treats different characters as belonging to different "syntax
categories".  For example, the regular expression, `\\w+', is a pattern
specifying one or more _word constituent_ characters.  Word constituent
characters are members of one syntax category.  Other syntax categories
include the class of punctuation characters, such as the period and the
comma, and the class of whitespace characters, such as the blank space
and the tab character.  (For more information, see *note Syntax:
(emacs)Syntax, and *note Syntax Tables: (elisp)Syntax Tables.)

   Syntax tables specify which characters belong to which categories.
Usually, a hyphen is not specified as a `word constituent character'.
Instead, it is specified as being in the `class of characters that are
part of symbol names but not words.'  This means that the
`count-words-region' function treats it in the same way it treats an
interword white space, which is why `count-words-region' counts
`multiply-by-seven' as three words.

   There are two ways to cause Emacs to count `multiply-by-seven' as
one symbol: modify the syntax table or modify the regular expression.

   We could redefine a hyphen as a word constituent character by
modifying the syntax table that Emacs keeps for each mode.  This action
would serve our purpose, except that a hyphen is merely the most common
character within symbols that is not typically a word constituent
character; there are others, too.

   Alternatively, we can redefine the regular expression used in the
`count-words' definition so as to include symbols.  This procedure has
the merit of clarity, but the task is a little tricky.

   The first part is simple enough: the pattern must match "at least one
character that is a word or symbol constituent".  Thus:

     "\\(\\w\\|\\s_\\)+"

The `\\(' is the first part of the grouping construct that includes the
`\\w' and the `\\s_' as alternatives, separated by the `\\|'.  The
`\\w' matches any word-constituent character and the `\\s_' matches any
character that is part of a symbol name but not a word-constituent
character.  The `+' following the group indicates that the word or
symbol constituent characters must be matched at least once.

   However, the second part of the regexp is more difficult to design.
What we want is to follow the first part with "optionally one or more
characters that are not constituents of a word or symbol".  At first, I
thought I could define this with the following:

     "\\(\\W\\|\\S_\\)*"

The upper case `W' and `S' match characters that are _not_ word or
symbol constituents.  Unfortunately, this expression matches any
character that is either not a word constituent or not a symbol
constituent.  This matches any character!

   I then noticed that every word or symbol in my test region was
followed by white space (blank space, tab, or newline).  So I tried
placing a pattern to match one or more blank spaces after the pattern
for one or more word or symbol constituents.  This failed, too.  Words
and symbols are often separated by whitespace, but in actual code
parentheses may follow symbols and punctuation may follow words.  So
finally, I designed a pattern in which the word or symbol constituents
are followed optionally by characters that are not white space and then
followed optionally by white space.

   Here is the full regular expression:

     "\\(\\w\\|\\s_\\)+[^ \t\n]*[ \t\n]*"


File: eintr,  Node: count-words-in-defun,  Next: Several defuns,  Prev: Syntax,  Up: Words in a defun

14.3 The `count-words-in-defun' Function
========================================

We have seen that there are several ways to write a `count-word-region'
function.  To write a `count-words-in-defun', we need merely adapt one
of these versions.

   The version that uses a `while' loop is easy to understand, so I am
going to adapt that.  Because `count-words-in-defun' will be part of a
more complex program, it need not be interactive and it need not
display a message but just return the count.  These considerations
simplify the definition a little.

   On the other hand, `count-words-in-defun' will be used within a
buffer that contains function definitions.  Consequently, it is
reasonable to ask that the function determine whether it is called when
point is within a function definition, and if it is, to return the
count for that definition.  This adds complexity to the definition, but
saves us from needing to pass arguments to the function.

   These considerations lead us to prepare the following template:

     (defun count-words-in-defun ()
       "DOCUMENTATION..."
       (SET UP...
          (WHILE LOOP...)
        RETURN COUNT)

As usual, our job is to fill in the slots.

   First, the set up.

   We are presuming that this function will be called within a buffer
containing function definitions.  Point will either be within a
function definition or not.  For `count-words-in-defun' to work, point
must move to the beginning of the definition, a counter must start at
zero, and the counting loop must stop when point reaches the end of the
definition.

   The `beginning-of-defun' function searches backwards for an opening
delimiter such as a `(' at the beginning of a line, and moves point to
that position, or else to the limit of the search.  In practice, this
means that `beginning-of-defun' moves point to the beginning of an
enclosing or preceding function definition, or else to the beginning of
the buffer.  We can use `beginning-of-defun' to place point where we
wish to start.

   The `while' loop requires a counter to keep track of the words or
symbols being counted.  A `let' expression can be used to create a
local variable for this purpose, and bind it to an initial value of
zero.

   The `end-of-defun' function works like `beginning-of-defun' except
that it moves point to the end of the definition.  `end-of-defun' can
be used as part of an expression that determines the position of the
end of the definition.

   The set up for `count-words-in-defun' takes shape rapidly: first we
move point to the beginning of the definition, then we create a local
variable to hold the count, and finally, we record the position of the
end of the definition so the `while' loop will know when to stop
looping.

   The code looks like this:

     (beginning-of-defun)
     (let ((count 0)
           (end (save-excursion (end-of-defun) (point))))

The code is simple.  The only slight complication is likely to concern
`end': it is bound to the position of the end of the definition by a
`save-excursion' expression that returns the value of point after
`end-of-defun' temporarily moves it to the end of the definition.

   The second part of the `count-words-in-defun', after the set up, is
the `while' loop.

   The loop must contain an expression that jumps point forward word by
word and symbol by symbol, and another expression that counts the
jumps.  The true-or-false-test for the `while' loop should test true so
long as point should jump forward, and false when point is at the end
of the definition.  We have already redefined the regular expression
for this (*note Syntax::), so the loop is straightforward:

     (while (and (< (point) end)
                 (re-search-forward
                  "\\(\\w\\|\\s_\\)+[^ \t\n]*[ \t\n]*" end t)
       (setq count (1+ count)))

   The third part of the function definition returns the count of words
and symbols.  This part is the last expression within the body of the
`let' expression, and can be, very simply, the local variable `count',
which when evaluated returns the count.

   Put together, the `count-words-in-defun' definition looks like this:

     (defun count-words-in-defun ()
       "Return the number of words and symbols in a defun."
       (beginning-of-defun)
       (let ((count 0)
             (end (save-excursion (end-of-defun) (point))))
         (while
             (and (< (point) end)
                  (re-search-forward
                   "\\(\\w\\|\\s_\\)+[^ \t\n]*[ \t\n]*"
                   end t))
           (setq count (1+ count)))
         count))

   How to test this?  The function is not interactive, but it is easy to
put a wrapper around the function to make it interactive; we can use
almost the same code as for the recursive version of
`count-words-region':

     ;;; Interactive version.
     (defun count-words-defun ()
       "Number of words and symbols in a function definition."
       (interactive)
       (message
        "Counting words and symbols in function definition ... ")
       (let ((count (count-words-in-defun)))
         (cond
          ((zerop count)
           (message
            "The definition does NOT have any words or symbols."))
          ((= 1 count)
           (message
            "The definition has 1 word or symbol."))
          (t
           (message
            "The definition has %d words or symbols." count)))))

Let's re-use `C-c =' as a convenient keybinding:

     (global-set-key "\C-c=" 'count-words-defun)

   Now we can try out `count-words-defun': install both
`count-words-in-defun' and `count-words-defun', and set the keybinding,
and then place the cursor within the following definition:

     (defun multiply-by-seven (number)
       "Multiply NUMBER by seven."
       (* 7 number))
          => 10

Success!  The definition has 10 words and symbols.

   The next problem is to count the numbers of words and symbols in
several definitions within a single file.


File: eintr,  Node: Several defuns,  Next: Find a File,  Prev: count-words-in-defun,  Up: Words in a defun

14.4 Count Several `defuns' Within a File
=========================================

A file such as `simple.el' may have a hundred or more function
definitions within it.  Our long term goal is to collect statistics on
many files, but as a first step, our immediate goal is to collect
statistics on one file.

   The information will be a series of numbers, each number being the
length of a function definition.  We can store the numbers in a list.

   We know that we will want to incorporate the information regarding
one file with information about many other files; this means that the
function for counting definition lengths within one file need only
return the list of lengths.  It need not and should not display any
messages.

   The word count commands contain one expression to jump point forward
word by word and another expression to count the jumps.  The function
to return the lengths of definitions can be designed to work the same
way, with one expression to jump point forward definition by definition
and another expression to construct the lengths' list.

   This statement of the problem makes it elementary to write the
function definition.  Clearly, we will start the count at the beginning
of the file, so the first command will be `(goto-char (point-min))'.
Next, we start the `while' loop; and the true-or-false test of the loop
can be a regular expression search for the next function definition--so
long as the search succeeds, point is moved forward and then the body
of the loop is evaluated.  The body needs an expression that constructs
the lengths' list.  `cons', the list construction command, can be used
to create the list.  That is almost all there is to it.

   Here is what this fragment of code looks like:

     (goto-char (point-min))
     (while (re-search-forward "^(defun" nil t)
       (setq lengths-list
             (cons (count-words-in-defun) lengths-list)))

   What we have left out is the mechanism for finding the file that
contains the function definitions.

   In previous examples, we either used this, the Info file, or we
switched back and forth to some other buffer, such as the `*scratch*'
buffer.

   Finding a file is a new process that we have not yet discussed.


File: eintr,  Node: Find a File,  Next: lengths-list-file,  Prev: Several defuns,  Up: Words in a defun

14.5 Find a File
================

To find a file in Emacs, you use the `C-x C-f' (`find-file') command.
This command is almost, but not quite right for the lengths problem.

   Let's look at the source for `find-file':

     (defun find-file (filename)
       "Edit file FILENAME.
     Switch to a buffer visiting file FILENAME,
     creating one if none already exists."
       (interactive "FFind file: ")
       (switch-to-buffer (find-file-noselect filename)))

(The most recent version of the `find-file' function definition permits
you to specify optional wildcards to visit multiple files; that makes
the definition more complex and we will not discuss it here, since it
is not relevant.  You can see its source using either `M-.'
(`find-tag') or `C-h f' (`describe-function').)

   The definition I am showing possesses short but complete
documentation and an interactive specification that prompts you for a
file name when you use the command interactively.  The body of the
definition contains two functions, `find-file-noselect' and
`switch-to-buffer'.

   According to its documentation as shown by `C-h f' (the
`describe-function' command), the `find-file-noselect' function reads
the named file into a buffer and returns the buffer.  (Its most recent
version includes an optional wildcards argument, too, as well as
another to read a file literally and an other you suppress warning
messages.  These optional arguments are irrelevant.)

   However, the `find-file-noselect' function does not select the
buffer in which it puts the file.  Emacs does not switch its attention
(or yours if you are using `find-file-noselect') to the selected
buffer.  That is what `switch-to-buffer' does: it switches the buffer
to which Emacs attention is directed; and it switches the buffer
displayed in the window to the new buffer.  We have discussed buffer
switching elsewhere.  (*Note Switching Buffers::.)

   In this histogram project, we do not need to display each file on the
screen as the program determines the length of each definition within
it.  Instead of employing `switch-to-buffer', we can work with
`set-buffer', which redirects the attention of the computer program to
a different buffer but does not redisplay it on the screen.  So instead
of calling on `find-file' to do the job, we must write our own
expression.

   The task is easy: use `find-file-noselect' and `set-buffer'.


File: eintr,  Node: lengths-list-file,  Next: Several files,  Prev: Find a File,  Up: Words in a defun

14.6 `lengths-list-file' in Detail
==================================

The core of the `lengths-list-file' function is a `while' loop
containing a function to move point forward `defun by defun' and a
function to count the number of words and symbols in each defun.  This
core must be surrounded by functions that do various other tasks,
including finding the file, and ensuring that point starts out at the
beginning of the file.  The function definition looks like this: 

     (defun lengths-list-file (filename)
       "Return list of definitions' lengths within FILE.
     The returned list is a list of numbers.
     Each number is the number of words or
     symbols in one function definition."
       (message "Working on `%s' ... " filename)
       (save-excursion
         (let ((buffer (find-file-noselect filename))
               (lengths-list))
           (set-buffer buffer)
           (setq buffer-read-only t)
           (widen)
           (goto-char (point-min))
           (while (re-search-forward "^(defun" nil t)
             (setq lengths-list
                   (cons (count-words-in-defun) lengths-list)))
           (kill-buffer buffer)
           lengths-list)))

The function is passed one argument, the name of the file on which it
will work.  It has four lines of documentation, but no interactive
specification.  Since people worry that a computer is broken if they
don't see anything going on, the first line of the body is a message.

   The next line contains a `save-excursion' that returns Emacs'
attention to the current buffer when the function completes.  This is
useful in case you embed this function in another function that
presumes point is restored to the original buffer.

   In the varlist of the `let' expression, Emacs finds the file and
binds the local variable `buffer' to the buffer containing the file.
At the same time, Emacs creates `lengths-list' as a local variable.

   Next, Emacs switches its attention to the buffer.

   In the following line, Emacs makes the buffer read-only.  Ideally,
this line is not necessary.  None of the functions for counting words
and symbols in a function definition should change the buffer.
Besides, the buffer is not going to be saved, even if it were changed.
This line is entirely the consequence of great, perhaps excessive,
caution.  The reason for the caution is that this function and those it
calls work on the sources for Emacs and it is inconvenient if they are
inadvertently modified.  It goes without saying that I did not realize
a need for this line until an experiment went awry and started to
modify my Emacs source files ...

   Next comes a call to widen the buffer if it is narrowed.  This
function is usually not needed--Emacs creates a fresh buffer if none
already exists; but if a buffer visiting the file already exists Emacs
returns that one.  In this case, the buffer may be narrowed and must be
widened.  If we wanted to be fully `user-friendly', we would arrange to
save the restriction and the location of point, but we won't.

   The `(goto-char (point-min))' expression moves point to the
beginning of the buffer.

   Then comes a `while' loop in which the `work' of the function is
carried out.  In the loop, Emacs determines the length of each
definition and constructs a lengths' list containing the information.

   Emacs kills the buffer after working through it.  This is to save
space inside of Emacs.  My version of GNU Emacs 19 contained over 300
source files of interest; GNU Emacs 22 contains over a thousand source
files.  Another function will apply `lengths-list-file' to each of the
files.

   Finally, the last expression within the `let' expression is the
`lengths-list' variable; its value is returned as the value of the
whole function.

   You can try this function by installing it in the usual fashion.
Then place your cursor after the following expression and type `C-x
C-e' (`eval-last-sexp').

     (lengths-list-file
      "/usr/local/share/emacs/22.1.1/lisp/emacs-lisp/debug.el")

(You may need to change the pathname of the file; the one here is for
GNU Emacs version 22.1.1.  To change the expression, copy it to the
`*scratch*' buffer and edit it.

(Also, to see the full length of the list, rather than a truncated
version, you may have to evaluate the following:

     (custom-set-variables '(eval-expression-print-length nil))

(*Note Specifying Variables using `defcustom': defcustom.  Then
evaluate the `lengths-list-file' expression.)

   The lengths' list for `debug.el' takes less than a second to produce
and looks like this in GNU Emacs 22:

     (83 113 105 144 289 22 30 97 48 89 25 52 52 88 28 29 77 49 43 290 232 587)

   (Using my old machine, the version 19 lengths' list for `debug.el'
took seven seconds to produce and looked like this:

     (75 41 80 62 20 45 44 68 45 12 34 235)

   (The newer version of `debug.el' contains more defuns than the
earlier one; and my new machine is much faster than the old one.)

   Note that the length of the last definition in the file is first in
the list.


File: eintr,  Node: Several files,  Next: Several files recursively,  Prev: lengths-list-file,  Up: Words in a defun

14.7 Count Words in `defuns' in Different Files
===============================================

In the previous section, we created a function that returns a list of
the lengths of each definition in a file.  Now, we want to define a
function to return a master list of the lengths of the definitions in a
list of files.

   Working on each of a list of files is a repetitious act, so we can
use either a `while' loop or recursion.

* Menu:

* lengths-list-many-files::     Return a list of the lengths of defuns.
* append::                      Attach one list to another.


File: eintr,  Node: lengths-list-many-files,  Next: append,  Prev: Several files,  Up: Several files

Determine the lengths of `defuns'
---------------------------------

   The design using a `while' loop is routine.  The argument passed the
function is a list of files.  As we saw earlier (*note Loop Example::),
you can write a `while' loop so that the body of the loop is evaluated
if such a list contains elements, but to exit the loop if the list is
empty.  For this design to work, the body of the loop must contain an
expression that shortens the list each time the body is evaluated, so
that eventually the list is empty.  The usual technique is to set the
value of the list to the value of the CDR of the list each time the
body is evaluated.

   The template looks like this:

     (while TEST-WHETHER-LIST-IS-EMPTY
       BODY...
       SET-LIST-TO-CDR-OF-LIST)

   Also, we remember that a `while' loop returns `nil' (the result of
evaluating the true-or-false-test), not the result of any evaluation
within its body.  (The evaluations within the body of the loop are done
for their side effects.)  However, the expression that sets the
lengths' list is part of the body--and that is the value that we want
returned by the function as a whole.  To do this, we enclose the
`while' loop within a `let' expression, and arrange that the last
element of the `let' expression contains the value of the lengths'
list.  (*Note Loop Example with an Incrementing Counter: Incrementing
Example.)

   These considerations lead us directly to the function itself:

     ;;; Use `while' loop.
     (defun lengths-list-many-files (list-of-files)
       "Return list of lengths of defuns in LIST-OF-FILES."
       (let (lengths-list)

     ;;; true-or-false-test
         (while list-of-files
           (setq lengths-list
                 (append
                  lengths-list

     ;;; Generate a lengths' list.
                  (lengths-list-file
                   (expand-file-name (car list-of-files)))))

     ;;; Make files' list shorter.
           (setq list-of-files (cdr list-of-files)))

     ;;; Return final value of lengths' list.
         lengths-list))

   `expand-file-name' is a built-in function that converts a file name
to the absolute, long, path name form.  The function employs the name
of the directory in which the function is called.

   Thus, if `expand-file-name' is called on `debug.el' when Emacs is
visiting the `/usr/local/share/emacs/22.1.1/lisp/emacs-lisp/' directory,

     debug.el

becomes

     /usr/local/share/emacs/22.1.1/lisp/emacs-lisp/debug.el

   The only other new element of this function definition is the as yet
unstudied function `append', which merits a short section for itself.


File: eintr,  Node: append,  Prev: lengths-list-many-files,  Up: Several files

14.7.1 The `append' Function
----------------------------

The `append' function attaches one list to another.  Thus,

     (append '(1 2 3 4) '(5 6 7 8))

produces the list

     (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)

   This is exactly how we want to attach two lengths' lists produced by
`lengths-list-file' to each other.  The results contrast with `cons',

     (cons '(1 2 3 4) '(5 6 7 8))

which constructs a new list in which the first argument to `cons'
becomes the first element of the new list:

     ((1 2 3 4) 5 6 7 8)


File: eintr,  Node: Several files recursively,  Next: Prepare the data,  Prev: Several files,  Up: Words in a defun

14.8 Recursively Count Words in Different Files
===============================================

Besides a `while' loop, you can work on each of a list of files with
recursion.  A recursive version of `lengths-list-many-files' is short
and simple.

   The recursive function has the usual parts: the `do-again-test', the
`next-step-expression', and the recursive call.  The `do-again-test'
determines whether the function should call itself again, which it will
do if the `list-of-files' contains any remaining elements; the
`next-step-expression' resets the `list-of-files' to the CDR of itself,
so eventually the list will be empty; and the recursive call calls
itself on the shorter list.  The complete function is shorter than this
description!  

     (defun recursive-lengths-list-many-files (list-of-files)
       "Return list of lengths of each defun in LIST-OF-FILES."
       (if list-of-files                     ; do-again-test
           (append
            (lengths-list-file
             (expand-file-name (car list-of-files)))
            (recursive-lengths-list-many-files
             (cdr list-of-files)))))

In a sentence, the function returns the lengths' list for the first of
the `list-of-files' appended to the result of calling itself on the
rest of the `list-of-files'.

   Here is a test of `recursive-lengths-list-many-files', along with
the results of running `lengths-list-file' on each of the files
individually.

   Install `recursive-lengths-list-many-files' and `lengths-list-file',
if necessary, and then evaluate the following expressions.  You may
need to change the files' pathnames; those here work when this Info
file and the Emacs sources are located in their customary places.  To
change the expressions, copy them to the `*scratch*' buffer, edit them,
and then evaluate them.

   The results are shown after the `=>'.  (These results are for files
from Emacs version 22.1.1; files from other versions of Emacs may
produce different results.)

     (cd "/usr/local/share/emacs/22.1.1/")

     (lengths-list-file "./lisp/macros.el")
          => (283 263 480 90)

     (lengths-list-file "./lisp/mail/mailalias.el")
          => (38 32 29 95 178 180 321 218 324)

     (lengths-list-file "./lisp/makesum.el")
          => (85 181)

       (recursive-lengths-list-many-files
        '("./lisp/macros.el"
          "./lisp/mail/mailalias.el"
          "./lisp/makesum.el"))
            => (283 263 480 90 38 32 29 95 178 180 321 218 324 85 181)

   The `recursive-lengths-list-many-files' function produces the output
we want.

   The next step is to prepare the data in the list for display in a
graph.


File: eintr,  Node: Prepare the data,  Prev: Several files recursively,  Up: Words in a defun

14.9 Prepare the Data for Display in a Graph
============================================

The `recursive-lengths-list-many-files' function returns a list of
numbers.  Each number records the length of a function definition.
What we need to do now is transform this data into a list of numbers
suitable for generating a graph.  The new list will tell how many
functions definitions contain less than 10 words and symbols, how many
contain between 10 and 19 words and symbols, how many contain between
20 and 29 words and symbols, and so on.

   In brief, we need to go through the lengths' list produced by the
`recursive-lengths-list-many-files' function and count the number of
defuns within each range of lengths, and produce a list of those
numbers.

* Menu:

* Data for Display in Detail::
* Sorting::                     Sorting lists.
* Files List::                  Making a list of files.
* Counting function definitions::


File: eintr,  Node: Data for Display in Detail,  Next: Sorting,  Prev: Prepare the data,  Up: Prepare the data

The Data for Display in Detail
------------------------------

   Based on what we have done before, we can readily foresee that it
should not be too hard to write a function that `CDRs' down the
lengths' list, looks at each element, determines which length range it
is in, and increments a counter for that range.

   However, before beginning to write such a function, we should
consider the advantages of sorting the lengths' list first, so the
numbers are ordered from smallest to largest.  First, sorting will make
it easier to count the numbers in each range, since two adjacent
numbers will either be in the same length range or in adjacent ranges.
Second, by inspecting a sorted list, we can discover the highest and
lowest number, and thereby determine the largest and smallest length
range that we will need.


File: eintr,  Node: Sorting,  Next: Files List,  Prev: Data for Display in Detail,  Up: Prepare the data

14.9.1 Sorting Lists
--------------------

Emacs contains a function to sort lists, called (as you might guess)
`sort'.  The `sort' function takes two arguments, the list to be
sorted, and a predicate that determines whether the first of two list
elements is "less" than the second.

   As we saw earlier (*note Using the Wrong Type Object as an Argument:
Wrong Type of Argument.), a predicate is a function that determines
whether some property is true or false.  The `sort' function will
reorder a list according to whatever property the predicate uses; this
means that `sort' can be used to sort non-numeric lists by non-numeric
criteria--it can, for example, alphabetize a list.

   The `<' function is used when sorting a numeric list.  For example,

     (sort '(4 8 21 17 33 7 21 7) '<)

produces this:

     (4 7 7 8 17 21 21 33)

(Note that in this example, both the arguments are quoted so that the
symbols are not evaluated before being passed to `sort' as arguments.)

   Sorting the list returned by the `recursive-lengths-list-many-files'
function is straightforward; it uses the `<' function:

     (sort
      (recursive-lengths-list-many-files
       '("./lisp/macros.el"
         "./lisp/mailalias.el"
         "./lisp/makesum.el"))
      '<)

which produces:

     (29 32 38 85 90 95 178 180 181 218 263 283 321 324 480)

(Note that in this example, the first argument to `sort' is not quoted,
since the expression must be evaluated so as to produce the list that
is passed to `sort'.)


File: eintr,  Node: Files List,  Next: Counting function definitions,  Prev: Sorting,  Up: Prepare the data

14.9.2 Making a List of Files
-----------------------------

The `recursive-lengths-list-many-files' function requires a list of
files as its argument.  For our test examples, we constructed such a
list by hand; but the Emacs Lisp source directory is too large for us
to do for that.  Instead, we will write a function to do the job for
us.  In this function, we will use both a `while' loop and a recursive
call.

   We did not have to write a function like this for older versions of
GNU Emacs, since they placed all the `.el' files in one directory.
Instead, we were able to use the `directory-files' function, which
lists the names of files that match a specified pattern within a single
directory.

   However, recent versions of Emacs place Emacs Lisp files in
sub-directories of the top level `lisp' directory.  This re-arrangement
eases navigation.  For example, all the mail related files are in a
`lisp' sub-directory called `mail'.  But at the same time, this
arrangement forces us to create a file listing function that descends
into the sub-directories.

   We can create this function, called `files-in-below-directory',
using familiar functions such as `car', `nthcdr', and `substring' in
conjunction with an existing function called
`directory-files-and-attributes'.  This latter function not only lists
all the filenames in a directory, including the names of
sub-directories, but also their attributes.

   To restate our goal: to create a function that will enable us to
feed filenames to `recursive-lengths-list-many-files' as a list that
looks like this (but with more elements):

     ("./lisp/macros.el"
      "./lisp/mail/rmail.el"
      "./lisp/makesum.el")

   The `directory-files-and-attributes' function returns a list of
lists.  Each of the lists within the main list consists of 13 elements.
The first element is a string that contains the name of the file -
which, in GNU/Linux, may be a `directory file', that is to say, a file
with the special attributes of a directory.  The second element of the
list is `t' for a directory, a string for symbolic link (the string is
the name linked to), or `nil'.

   For example, the first `.el' file in the `lisp/' directory is
`abbrev.el'.  Its name is
`/usr/local/share/emacs/22.1.1/lisp/abbrev.el' and it is not a
directory or a symbolic link.

   This is how `directory-files-and-attributes' lists that file and its
attributes:

     ("abbrev.el"
     nil
     1
     1000
     100
     (17733 259)
     (17491 28834)
     (17596 62124)
     13157
     "-rw-rw-r--"
     nil
     2971624
     773)

   On the other hand, `mail/' is a directory within the `lisp/'
directory.  The beginning of its listing looks like this:

     ("mail"
     t
     ...
     )

   (To learn about the different attributes, look at the documentation
of `file-attributes'.  Bear in mind that the `file-attributes' function
does not list the filename, so its first element is
`directory-files-and-attributes''s second element.)

   We will want our new function, `files-in-below-directory', to list
the `.el' files in the directory it is told to check, and in any
directories below that directory.

   This gives us a hint on how to construct `files-in-below-directory':
within a directory, the function should add `.el' filenames to a list;
and if, within a directory, the function comes upon a sub-directory, it
should go into that sub-directory and repeat its actions.

   However, we should note that every directory contains a name that
refers to itself, called `.', ("dot") and a name that refers to its
parent directory, called `..' ("double dot").  (In `/', the root
directory, `..' refers to itself, since `/' has no parent.)  Clearly,
we do not want our `files-in-below-directory' function to enter those
directories, since they always lead us, directly or indirectly, to the
current directory.

   Consequently, our `files-in-below-directory' function must do
several tasks:

   * Check to see whether it is looking at a filename that ends in
     `.el'; and if so, add its name to a list.

   * Check to see whether it is looking at a filename that is the name
     of a directory; and if so,

        - Check to see whether it is looking at `.'  or `..'; and if so
          skip it.

        - Or else, go into that directory and repeat the process.

   Let's write a function definition to do these tasks.  We will use a
`while' loop to move from one filename to another within a directory,
checking what needs to be done; and we will use a recursive call to
repeat the actions on each sub-directory.  The recursive pattern is
`accumulate' (*note Recursive Pattern: _accumulate_: Accumulate.),
using `append' as the combiner.

   Here is the function:

     (defun files-in-below-directory (directory)
       "List the .el files in DIRECTORY and in its sub-directories."
       ;; Although the function will be used non-interactively,
       ;; it will be easier to test if we make it interactive.
       ;; The directory will have a name such as
       ;;  "/usr/local/share/emacs/22.1.1/lisp/"
       (interactive "DDirectory name: ")
       (let (el-files-list
             (current-directory-list
              (directory-files-and-attributes directory t)))
         ;; while we are in the current directory
         (while current-directory-list
           (cond
            ;; check to see whether filename ends in `.el'
            ;; and if so, append its name to a list.
            ((equal ".el" (substring (car (car current-directory-list)) -3))
             (setq el-files-list
                   (cons (car (car current-directory-list)) el-files-list)))
            ;; check whether filename is that of a directory
            ((eq t (car (cdr (car current-directory-list))))
             ;; decide whether to skip or recurse
             (if
                 (equal "."
                        (substring (car (car current-directory-list)) -1))
                 ;; then do nothing since filename is that of
                 ;;   current directory or parent, "." or ".."
                 ()
               ;; else descend into the directory and repeat the process
               (setq el-files-list
                     (append
                      (files-in-below-directory
                       (car (car current-directory-list)))
                      el-files-list)))))
           ;; move to the next filename in the list; this also
           ;; shortens the list so the while loop eventually comes to an end
           (setq current-directory-list (cdr current-directory-list)))
         ;; return the filenames
         el-files-list))

   The `files-in-below-directory' `directory-files' function takes one
argument, the name of a directory.

   Thus, on my system,

     (length
      (files-in-below-directory "/usr/local/share/emacs/22.1.1/lisp/"))

tells me that in and below my Lisp sources directory are 1031 `.el'
files.

   `files-in-below-directory' returns a list in reverse alphabetical
order.  An expression to sort the list in alphabetical order looks like
this:

     (sort
      (files-in-below-directory "/usr/local/share/emacs/22.1.1/lisp/")
      'string-lessp)


File: eintr,  Node: Counting function definitions,  Prev: Files List,  Up: Prepare the data

14.9.3 Counting function definitions
------------------------------------

Our immediate goal is to generate a list that tells us how many
function definitions contain fewer than 10 words and symbols, how many
contain between 10 and 19 words and symbols, how many contain between
20 and 29 words and symbols, and so on.

   With a sorted list of numbers, this is easy: count how many elements
of the list are smaller than 10, then, after moving past the numbers
just counted, count how many are smaller than 20, then, after moving
past the numbers just counted, count how many are smaller than 30, and
so on.  Each of the numbers, 10, 20, 30, 40, and the like, is one
larger than the top of that range.  We can call the list of such
numbers the `top-of-ranges' list.

   If we wished, we could generate this list automatically, but it is
simpler to write a list manually.  Here it is: 

     (defvar top-of-ranges
      '(10  20  30  40  50
        60  70  80  90 100
       110 120 130 140 150
       160 170 180 190 200
       210 220 230 240 250
       260 270 280 290 300)
      "List specifying ranges for `defuns-per-range'.")

   To change the ranges, we edit this list.

   Next, we need to write the function that creates the list of the
number of definitions within each range.  Clearly, this function must
take the `sorted-lengths' and the `top-of-ranges' lists as arguments.

   The `defuns-per-range' function must do two things again and again:
it must count the number of definitions within a range specified by the
current top-of-range value; and it must shift to the next higher value
in the `top-of-ranges' list after counting the number of definitions in
the current range.  Since each of these actions is repetitive, we can
use `while' loops for the job.  One loop counts the number of
definitions in the range defined by the current top-of-range value, and
the other loop selects each of the top-of-range values in turn.

   Several entries of the `sorted-lengths' list are counted for each
range; this means that the loop for the `sorted-lengths' list will be
inside the loop for the `top-of-ranges' list, like a small gear inside
a big gear.

   The inner loop counts the number of definitions within the range.  It
is a simple counting loop of the type we have seen before.  (*Note A
loop with an incrementing counter: Incrementing Loop.)  The
true-or-false test of the loop tests whether the value from the
`sorted-lengths' list is smaller than the current value of the top of
the range.  If it is, the function increments the counter and tests the
next value from the `sorted-lengths' list.

   The inner loop looks like this:

     (while LENGTH-ELEMENT-SMALLER-THAN-TOP-OF-RANGE
       (setq number-within-range (1+ number-within-range))
       (setq sorted-lengths (cdr sorted-lengths)))

   The outer loop must start with the lowest value of the
`top-of-ranges' list, and then be set to each of the succeeding higher
values in turn.  This can be done with a loop like this:

     (while top-of-ranges
       BODY-OF-LOOP...
       (setq top-of-ranges (cdr top-of-ranges)))

   Put together, the two loops look like this:

     (while top-of-ranges

       ;; Count the number of elements within the current range.
       (while LENGTH-ELEMENT-SMALLER-THAN-TOP-OF-RANGE
         (setq number-within-range (1+ number-within-range))
         (setq sorted-lengths (cdr sorted-lengths)))

       ;; Move to next range.
       (setq top-of-ranges (cdr top-of-ranges)))

   In addition, in each circuit of the outer loop, Emacs should record
the number of definitions within that range (the value of
`number-within-range') in a list.  We can use `cons' for this purpose.
(*Note `cons': cons.)

   The `cons' function works fine, except that the list it constructs
will contain the number of definitions for the highest range at its
beginning and the number of definitions for the lowest range at its
end.  This is because `cons' attaches new elements of the list to the
beginning of the list, and since the two loops are working their way
through the lengths' list from the lower end first, the
`defuns-per-range-list' will end up largest number first.  But we will
want to print our graph with smallest values first and the larger
later.  The solution is to reverse the order of the
`defuns-per-range-list'.  We can do this using the `nreverse' function,
which reverses the order of a list.  

   For example,

     (nreverse '(1 2 3 4))

produces:

     (4 3 2 1)

   Note that the `nreverse' function is "destructive"--that is, it
changes the list to which it is applied; this contrasts with the `car'
and `cdr' functions, which are non-destructive.  In this case, we do
not want the original `defuns-per-range-list', so it does not matter
that it is destroyed.  (The `reverse' function provides a reversed copy
of a list, leaving the original list as is.)  

   Put all together, the `defuns-per-range' looks like this:

     (defun defuns-per-range (sorted-lengths top-of-ranges)
       "SORTED-LENGTHS defuns in each TOP-OF-RANGES range."
       (let ((top-of-range (car top-of-ranges))
             (number-within-range 0)
             defuns-per-range-list)

         ;; Outer loop.
         (while top-of-ranges

           ;; Inner loop.
           (while (and
                   ;; Need number for numeric test.
                   (car sorted-lengths)
                   (< (car sorted-lengths) top-of-range))

             ;; Count number of definitions within current range.
             (setq number-within-range (1+ number-within-range))
             (setq sorted-lengths (cdr sorted-lengths)))

           ;; Exit inner loop but remain within outer loop.

           (setq defuns-per-range-list
                 (cons number-within-range defuns-per-range-list))
           (setq number-within-range 0)      ; Reset count to zero.

           ;; Move to next range.
           (setq top-of-ranges (cdr top-of-ranges))
           ;; Specify next top of range value.
           (setq top-of-range (car top-of-ranges)))

         ;; Exit outer loop and count the number of defuns larger than
         ;;   the largest top-of-range value.
         (setq defuns-per-range-list
               (cons
                (length sorted-lengths)
                defuns-per-range-list))

         ;; Return a list of the number of definitions within each range,
         ;;   smallest to largest.
         (nreverse defuns-per-range-list)))

The function is straightforward except for one subtle feature.  The
true-or-false test of the inner loop looks like this:

     (and (car sorted-lengths)
          (< (car sorted-lengths) top-of-range))

instead of like this:

     (< (car sorted-lengths) top-of-range)

   The purpose of the test is to determine whether the first item in the
`sorted-lengths' list is less than the value of the top of the range.

   The simple version of the test works fine unless the
`sorted-lengths' list has a `nil' value.  In that case, the `(car
sorted-lengths)' expression function returns `nil'.  The `<' function
cannot compare a number to `nil', which is an empty list, so Emacs
signals an error and stops the function from attempting to continue to
execute.

   The `sorted-lengths' list always becomes `nil' when the counter
reaches the end of the list.  This means that any attempt to use the
`defuns-per-range' function with the simple version of the test will
fail.

   We solve the problem by using the `(car sorted-lengths)' expression
in conjunction with the `and' expression.  The `(car sorted-lengths)'
expression returns a non-`nil' value so long as the list has at least
one number within it, but returns `nil' if the list is empty.  The
`and' expression first evaluates the `(car sorted-lengths)' expression,
and if it is `nil', returns false _without_ evaluating the `<'
expression.  But if the `(car sorted-lengths)' expression returns a
non-`nil' value, the `and' expression evaluates the `<' expression, and
returns that value as the value of the `and' expression.

   This way, we avoid an error.  (*Note The `kill-new' function:
kill-new function, for information about `and'.)

   Here is a short test of the `defuns-per-range' function.  First,
evaluate the expression that binds (a shortened) `top-of-ranges' list
to the list of values, then evaluate the expression for binding the
`sorted-lengths' list, and then evaluate the `defuns-per-range'
function.

     ;; (Shorter list than we will use later.)
     (setq top-of-ranges
      '(110 120 130 140 150
        160 170 180 190 200))

     (setq sorted-lengths
           '(85 86 110 116 122 129 154 176 179 200 265 300 300))

     (defuns-per-range sorted-lengths top-of-ranges)

The list returned looks like this:

     (2 2 2 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 4)

Indeed, there are two elements of the `sorted-lengths' list smaller
than 110, two elements between 110 and 119, two elements between 120
and 129, and so on.  There are four elements with a value of 200 or
larger.


File: eintr,  Node: Readying a Graph,  Next: Emacs Initialization,  Prev: Words in a defun,  Up: Top

15 Readying a Graph
*******************

Our goal is to construct a graph showing the numbers of function
definitions of various lengths in the Emacs lisp sources.

   As a practical matter, if you were creating a graph, you would
probably use a program such as `gnuplot' to do the job.  (`gnuplot' is
nicely integrated into GNU Emacs.)  In this case, however, we create
one from scratch, and in the process we will re-acquaint ourselves with
some of what we learned before and learn more.

   In this chapter, we will first write a simple graph printing
function.  This first definition will be a "prototype", a rapidly
written function that enables us to reconnoiter this unknown
graph-making territory.  We will discover dragons, or find that they
are myth.  After scouting the terrain, we will feel more confident and
enhance the function to label the axes automatically.

* Menu:

* Columns of a graph::
* graph-body-print::            How to print the body of a graph.
* recursive-graph-body-print::
* Printed Axes::
* Line Graph Exercise::


File: eintr,  Node: Columns of a graph,  Next: graph-body-print,  Prev: Readying a Graph,  Up: Readying a Graph

Printing the Columns of a Graph
===============================

   Since Emacs is designed to be flexible and work with all kinds of
terminals, including character-only terminals, the graph will need to
be made from one of the `typewriter' symbols.  An asterisk will do; as
we enhance the graph-printing function, we can make the choice of
symbol a user option.

   We can call this function `graph-body-print'; it will take a
`numbers-list' as its only argument.  At this stage, we will not label
the graph, but only print its body.

   The `graph-body-print' function inserts a vertical column of
asterisks for each element in the `numbers-list'.  The height of each
line is determined by the value of that element of the `numbers-list'.

   Inserting columns is a repetitive act; that means that this function
can be written either with a `while' loop or recursively.

   Our first challenge is to discover how to print a column of
asterisks.  Usually, in Emacs, we print characters onto a screen
horizontally, line by line, by typing.  We have two routes we can
follow: write our own column-insertion function or discover whether one
exists in Emacs.

   To see whether there is one in Emacs, we can use the `M-x apropos'
command.  This command is like the `C-h a' (`command-apropos') command,
except that the latter finds only those functions that are commands.
The `M-x apropos' command lists all symbols that match a regular
expression, including functions that are not interactive.  

   What we want to look for is some command that prints or inserts
columns.  Very likely, the name of the function will contain either the
word `print' or the word `insert' or the word `column'.  Therefore, we
can simply type `M-x apropos RET print\|insert\|column RET' and look at
the result.  On my system, this command once too takes quite some time,
and then produced a list of 79 functions and variables.  Now it does
not take much time at all and produces a list of 211 functions and
variables.  Scanning down the list, the only function that looks as if
it might do the job is `insert-rectangle'.

   Indeed, this is the function we want; its documentation says:

     insert-rectangle:
     Insert text of RECTANGLE with upper left corner at point.
     RECTANGLE's first line is inserted at point,
     its second line is inserted at a point vertically under point, etc.
     RECTANGLE should be a list of strings.
     After this command, the mark is at the upper left corner
     and point is at the lower right corner.

   We can run a quick test, to make sure it does what we expect of it.

   Here is the result of placing the cursor after the
`insert-rectangle' expression and typing `C-u C-x C-e'
(`eval-last-sexp').  The function inserts the strings `"first"',
`"second"', and `"third"' at and below point.  Also the function
returns `nil'.

     (insert-rectangle '("first" "second" "third"))first
                                                   second
                                                   thirdnil

Of course, we won't be inserting the text of the `insert-rectangle'
expression itself into the buffer in which we are making the graph, but
will call the function from our program.  We shall, however, have to
make sure that point is in the buffer at the place where the
`insert-rectangle' function will insert its column of strings.

   If you are reading this in Info, you can see how this works by
switching to another buffer, such as the `*scratch*' buffer, placing
point somewhere in the buffer, typing `M-:', typing the
`insert-rectangle' expression into the minibuffer at the prompt, and
then typing <RET>.  This causes Emacs to evaluate the expression in the
minibuffer, but to use as the value of point the position of point in
the `*scratch*' buffer.  (`M-:'  is the keybinding for
`eval-expression'. Also, `nil' does not appear in the `*scratch*'
buffer since the expression is evaluated in the minibuffer.)

   We find when we do this that point ends up at the end of the last
inserted line--that is to say, this function moves point as a
side-effect.  If we were to repeat the command, with point at this
position, the next insertion would be below and to the right of the
previous insertion.  We don't want this!  If we are going to make a bar
graph, the columns need to be beside each other.

   So we discover that each cycle of the column-inserting `while' loop
must reposition point to the place we want it, and that place will be
at the top, not the bottom, of the column.  Moreover, we remember that
when we print a graph, we do not expect all the columns to be the same
height.  This means that the top of each column may be at a different
height from the previous one.  We cannot simply reposition point to the
same line each time, but moved over to the right--or perhaps we can...

   We are planning to make the columns of the bar graph out of
asterisks.  The number of asterisks in the column is the number
specified by the current element of the `numbers-list'.  We need to
construct a list of asterisks of the right length for each call to
`insert-rectangle'.  If this list consists solely of the requisite
number of asterisks, then we will have position point the right number
of lines above the base for the graph to print correctly.  This could
be difficult.

   Alternatively, if we can figure out some way to pass
`insert-rectangle' a list of the same length each time, then we can
place point on the same line each time, but move it over one column to
the right for each new column.  If we do this, however, some of the
entries in the list passed to `insert-rectangle' must be blanks rather
than asterisks.  For example, if the maximum height of the graph is 5,
but the height of the column is 3, then `insert-rectangle' requires an
argument that looks like this:

     (" " " " "*" "*" "*")

   This last proposal is not so difficult, so long as we can determine
the column height.  There are two ways for us to specify the column
height: we can arbitrarily state what it will be, which would work fine
for graphs of that height; or we can search through the list of numbers
and use the maximum height of the list as the maximum height of the
graph.  If the latter operation were difficult, then the former
procedure would be easiest, but there is a function built into Emacs
that determines the maximum of its arguments.  We can use that
function.  The function is called `max' and it returns the largest of
all its arguments, which must be numbers.  Thus, for example,

     (max  3 4 6 5 7 3)

returns 7.  (A corresponding function called `min' returns the smallest
of all its arguments.)  

   However, we cannot simply call `max' on the `numbers-list'; the
`max' function expects numbers as its argument, not a list of numbers.
Thus, the following expression,

     (max  '(3 4 6 5 7 3))

produces the following error message;

     Wrong type of argument:  number-or-marker-p, (3 4 6 5 7 3)

   We need a function that passes a list of arguments to a function.
This function is `apply'.  This function `applies' its first argument
(a function) to its remaining arguments, the last of which may be a
list.

   For example,

     (apply 'max 3 4 7 3 '(4 8 5))

returns 8.

   (Incidentally, I don't know how you would learn of this function
without a book such as this.  It is possible to discover other
functions, like `search-forward' or `insert-rectangle', by guessing at
a part of their names and then using `apropos'.  Even though its base
in metaphor is clear--`apply' its first argument to the rest--I doubt a
novice would come up with that particular word when using `apropos' or
other aid.  Of course, I could be wrong; after all, the function was
first named by someone who had to invent it.)

   The second and subsequent arguments to `apply' are optional, so we
can use `apply' to call a function and pass the elements of a list to
it, like this, which also returns 8:

     (apply 'max '(4 8 5))

   This latter way is how we will use `apply'.  The
`recursive-lengths-list-many-files' function returns a numbers' list to
which we can apply `max' (we could also apply `max' to the sorted
numbers' list; it does not matter whether the list is sorted or not.)

   Hence, the operation for finding the maximum height of the graph is
this:

     (setq max-graph-height (apply 'max numbers-list))

   Now we can return to the question of how to create a list of strings
for a column of the graph.  Told the maximum height of the graph and
the number of asterisks that should appear in the column, the function
should return a list of strings for the `insert-rectangle' command to
insert.

   Each column is made up of asterisks or blanks.  Since the function is
passed the value of the height of the column and the number of
asterisks in the column, the number of blanks can be found by
subtracting the number of asterisks from the height of the column.
Given the number of blanks and the number of asterisks, two `while'
loops can be used to construct the list:

     ;;; First version.
     (defun column-of-graph (max-graph-height actual-height)
       "Return list of strings that is one column of a graph."
       (let ((insert-list nil)
             (number-of-top-blanks
              (- max-graph-height actual-height)))

         ;; Fill in asterisks.
         (while (> actual-height 0)
           (setq insert-list (cons "*" insert-list))
           (setq actual-height (1- actual-height)))

         ;; Fill in blanks.
         (while (> number-of-top-blanks 0)
           (setq insert-list (cons " " insert-list))
           (setq number-of-top-blanks
                 (1- number-of-top-blanks)))

         ;; Return whole list.
         insert-list))

   If you install this function and then evaluate the following
expression you will see that it returns the list as desired:

     (column-of-graph 5 3)

returns

     (" " " " "*" "*" "*")

   As written, `column-of-graph' contains a major flaw: the symbols
used for the blank and for the marked entries in the column are
`hard-coded' as a space and asterisk.  This is fine for a prototype,
but you, or another user, may wish to use other symbols.  For example,
in testing the graph function, you many want to use a period in place
of the space, to make sure the point is being repositioned properly
each time the `insert-rectangle' function is called; or you might want
to substitute a `+' sign or other symbol for the asterisk.  You might
even want to make a graph-column that is more than one display column
wide.  The program should be more flexible.  The way to do that is to
replace the blank and the asterisk with two variables that we can call
`graph-blank' and `graph-symbol' and define those variables separately.

   Also, the documentation is not well written.  These considerations
lead us to the second version of the function:

     (defvar graph-symbol "*"
       "String used as symbol in graph, usually an asterisk.")

     (defvar graph-blank " "
       "String used as blank in graph, usually a blank space.
     graph-blank must be the same number of columns wide
     as graph-symbol.")

(For an explanation of `defvar', see *note Initializing a Variable with
`defvar': defvar.)

     ;;; Second version.
     (defun column-of-graph (max-graph-height actual-height)
       "Return MAX-GRAPH-HEIGHT strings; ACTUAL-HEIGHT are graph-symbols.
     The graph-symbols are contiguous entries at the end
     of the list.
     The list will be inserted as one column of a graph.
     The strings are either graph-blank or graph-symbol."

       (let ((insert-list nil)
             (number-of-top-blanks
              (- max-graph-height actual-height)))

         ;; Fill in `graph-symbols'.
         (while (> actual-height 0)
           (setq insert-list (cons graph-symbol insert-list))
           (setq actual-height (1- actual-height)))

         ;; Fill in `graph-blanks'.
         (while (> number-of-top-blanks 0)
           (setq insert-list (cons graph-blank insert-list))
           (setq number-of-top-blanks
                 (1- number-of-top-blanks)))

         ;; Return whole list.
         insert-list))

   If we wished, we could rewrite `column-of-graph' a third time to
provide optionally for a line graph as well as for a bar graph.  This
would not be hard to do.  One way to think of a line graph is that it
is no more than a bar graph in which the part of each bar that is below
the top is blank.  To construct a column for a line graph, the function
first constructs a list of blanks that is one shorter than the value,
then it uses `cons' to attach a graph symbol to the list; then it uses
`cons' again to attach the `top blanks' to the list.

   It is easy to see how to write such a function, but since we don't
need it, we will not do it.  But the job could be done, and if it were
done, it would be done with `column-of-graph'.  Even more important, it
is worth noting that few changes would have to be made anywhere else.
The enhancement, if we ever wish to make it, is simple.

   Now, finally, we come to our first actual graph printing function.
This prints the body of a graph, not the labels for the vertical and
horizontal axes, so we can call this `graph-body-print'.


File: eintr,  Node: graph-body-print,  Next: recursive-graph-body-print,  Prev: Columns of a graph,  Up: Readying a Graph

15.1 The `graph-body-print' Function
====================================

After our preparation in the preceding section, the `graph-body-print'
function is straightforward.  The function will print column after
column of asterisks and blanks, using the elements of a numbers' list
to specify the number of asterisks in each column.  This is a
repetitive act, which means we can use a decrementing `while' loop or
recursive function for the job.  In this section, we will write the
definition using a `while' loop.

   The `column-of-graph' function requires the height of the graph as
an argument, so we should determine and record that as a local variable.

   This leads us to the following template for the `while' loop version
of this function:

     (defun graph-body-print (numbers-list)
       "DOCUMENTATION..."
       (let ((height  ...
              ...))

         (while numbers-list
           INSERT-COLUMNS-AND-REPOSITION-POINT
           (setq numbers-list (cdr numbers-list)))))

We need to fill in the slots of the template.

   Clearly, we can use the `(apply 'max numbers-list)' expression to
determine the height of the graph.

   The `while' loop will cycle through the `numbers-list' one element
at a time.  As it is shortened by the `(setq numbers-list (cdr
numbers-list))' expression, the CAR of each instance of the list is the
value of the argument for `column-of-graph'.

   At each cycle of the `while' loop, the `insert-rectangle' function
inserts the list returned by `column-of-graph'.  Since the
`insert-rectangle' function moves point to the lower right of the
inserted rectangle, we need to save the location of point at the time
the rectangle is inserted, move back to that position after the
rectangle is inserted, and then move horizontally to the next place
from which `insert-rectangle' is called.

   If the inserted columns are one character wide, as they will be if
single blanks and asterisks are used, the repositioning command is
simply `(forward-char 1)'; however, the width of a column may be
greater than one.  This means that the repositioning command should be
written `(forward-char symbol-width)'.  The `symbol-width' itself is
the length of a `graph-blank' and can be found using the expression
`(length graph-blank)'.  The best place to bind the `symbol-width'
variable to the value of the width of graph column is in the varlist of
the `let' expression.

   These considerations lead to the following function definition:

     (defun graph-body-print (numbers-list)
       "Print a bar graph of the NUMBERS-LIST.
     The numbers-list consists of the Y-axis values."

       (let ((height (apply 'max numbers-list))
             (symbol-width (length graph-blank))
             from-position)

         (while numbers-list
           (setq from-position (point))
           (insert-rectangle
            (column-of-graph height (car numbers-list)))
           (goto-char from-position)
           (forward-char symbol-width)
           ;; Draw graph column by column.
           (sit-for 0)
           (setq numbers-list (cdr numbers-list)))
         ;; Place point for X axis labels.
         (forward-line height)
         (insert "\n")
     ))

The one unexpected expression in this function is the `(sit-for 0)'
expression in the `while' loop.  This expression makes the graph
printing operation more interesting to watch than it would be
otherwise.  The expression causes Emacs to `sit' or do nothing for a
zero length of time and then redraw the screen.  Placed here, it causes
Emacs to redraw the screen column by column.  Without it, Emacs would
not redraw the screen until the function exits.

   We can test `graph-body-print' with a short list of numbers.

  1. Install `graph-symbol', `graph-blank', `column-of-graph', which
     are in *note Columns of a graph::, and `graph-body-print'.

  2. Copy the following expression:

          (graph-body-print '(1 2 3 4 6 4 3 5 7 6 5 2 3))

  3. Switch to the `*scratch*' buffer and place the cursor where you
     want the graph to start.

  4. Type `M-:' (`eval-expression').

  5. Yank the `graph-body-print' expression into the minibuffer with
     `C-y' (`yank)'.

  6. Press <RET> to evaluate the `graph-body-print' expression.

   Emacs will print a graph like this:

                         *
                     *   **
                     *  ****
                    *** ****
                   ********* *
                  ************
                 *************


File: eintr,  Node: recursive-graph-body-print,  Next: Printed Axes,  Prev: graph-body-print,  Up: Readying a Graph

15.2 The `recursive-graph-body-print' Function
==============================================

The `graph-body-print' function may also be written recursively.  The
recursive solution is divided into two parts: an outside `wrapper' that
uses a `let' expression to determine the values of several variables
that need only be found once, such as the maximum height of the graph,
and an inside function that is called recursively to print the graph.

   The `wrapper' is uncomplicated:

     (defun recursive-graph-body-print (numbers-list)
       "Print a bar graph of the NUMBERS-LIST.
     The numbers-list consists of the Y-axis values."
       (let ((height (apply 'max numbers-list))
             (symbol-width (length graph-blank))
             from-position)
         (recursive-graph-body-print-internal
          numbers-list
          height
          symbol-width)))

   The recursive function is a little more difficult.  It has four
parts: the `do-again-test', the printing code, the recursive call, and
the `next-step-expression'.  The `do-again-test' is a `when' expression
that determines whether the `numbers-list' contains any remaining
elements; if it does, the function prints one column of the graph using
the printing code and calls itself again.  The function calls itself
again according to the value produced by the `next-step-expression'
which causes the call to act on a shorter version of the `numbers-list'.

     (defun recursive-graph-body-print-internal
       (numbers-list height symbol-width)
       "Print a bar graph.
     Used within recursive-graph-body-print function."

       (when numbers-list
             (setq from-position (point))
             (insert-rectangle
              (column-of-graph height (car numbers-list)))
             (goto-char from-position)
             (forward-char symbol-width)
             (sit-for 0)     ; Draw graph column by column.
             (recursive-graph-body-print-internal
              (cdr numbers-list) height symbol-width)))

   After installation, this expression can be tested; here is a sample:

     (recursive-graph-body-print '(3 2 5 6 7 5 3 4 6 4 3 2 1))

   Here is what `recursive-graph-body-print' produces:

                     *
                    **   *
                   ****  *
                   **** ***
                 * *********
                 ************
                 *************

   Either of these two functions, `graph-body-print' or
`recursive-graph-body-print', create the body of a graph.


File: eintr,  Node: Printed Axes,  Next: Line Graph Exercise,  Prev: recursive-graph-body-print,  Up: Readying a Graph

15.3 Need for Printed Axes
==========================

A graph needs printed axes, so you can orient yourself.  For a do-once
project, it may be reasonable to draw the axes by hand using Emacs'
Picture mode; but a graph drawing function may be used more than once.

   For this reason, I have written enhancements to the basic
`print-graph-body' function that automatically print labels for the
horizontal and vertical axes.  Since the label printing functions do
not contain much new material, I have placed their description in an
appendix.  *Note A Graph with Labelled Axes: Full Graph.


File: eintr,  Node: Line Graph Exercise,  Prev: Printed Axes,  Up: Readying a Graph

15.4 Exercise
=============

Write a line graph version of the graph printing functions.


File: eintr,  Node: Emacs Initialization,  Next: Debugging,  Prev: Readying a Graph,  Up: Top

16 Your `.emacs' File
*********************

"You don't have to like Emacs to like it" - this seemingly paradoxical
statement is the secret of GNU Emacs.  The plain, `out of the box'
Emacs is a generic tool.  Most people who use it, customize it to suit
themselves.

   GNU Emacs is mostly written in Emacs Lisp; this means that by writing
expressions in Emacs Lisp you can change or extend Emacs.

* Menu:

* Default Configuration::
* Site-wide Init::              You can write site-wide init files.
* defcustom::                   Emacs will write code for you.
* Beginning a .emacs File::     How to write a `.emacs file'.
* Text and Auto-fill::          Automatically wrap lines.
* Mail Aliases::                Use abbreviations for email addresses.
* Indent Tabs Mode::            Don't use tabs with TeX
* Keybindings::                 Create some personal keybindings.
* Keymaps::                     More about key binding.
* Loading Files::               Load (i.e., evaluate) files automatically.
* Autoload::                    Make functions available.
* Simple Extension::            Define a function; bind it to a key.
* X11 Colors::                  Colors in X.
* Miscellaneous::
* Mode Line::                   How to customize your mode line.


File: eintr,  Node: Default Configuration,  Next: Site-wide Init,  Prev: Emacs Initialization,  Up: Emacs Initialization

Emacs' Default Configuration
============================

   There are those who appreciate Emacs' default configuration.  After
all, Emacs starts you in C mode when you edit a C file, starts you in
Fortran mode when you edit a Fortran file, and starts you in
Fundamental mode when you edit an unadorned file.  This all makes
sense, if you do not know who is going to use Emacs.  Who knows what a
person hopes to do with an unadorned file?  Fundamental mode is the
right default for such a file, just as C mode is the right default for
editing C code.  (Enough programming languages have syntaxes that
enable them to share or nearly share features, so C mode is now
provided by by CC mode, the `C Collection'.)

   But when you do know who is going to use Emacs--you, yourself--then
it makes sense to customize Emacs.

   For example, I seldom want Fundamental mode when I edit an otherwise
undistinguished file; I want Text mode.  This is why I customize Emacs:
so it suits me.

   You can customize and extend Emacs by writing or adapting a
`~/.emacs' file.  This is your personal initialization file; its
contents, written in Emacs Lisp, tell Emacs what to do.(1)

   A `~/.emacs' file contains Emacs Lisp code.  You can write this code
yourself; or you can use Emacs' `customize' feature to write the code
for you.  You can combine your own expressions and auto-written
Customize expressions in your `.emacs' file.

   (I myself prefer to write my own expressions, except for those,
particularly fonts, that I find easier to manipulate using the
`customize' command.  I combine the two methods.)

   Most of this chapter is about writing expressions yourself.  It
describes a simple `.emacs' file; for more information, see *note The
Init File: (emacs)Init File, and *note The Init File: (elisp)Init File.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) You may also add `.el' to `~/.emacs' and call it a `~/.emacs.el'
file.  In the past, you were forbidden to type the extra keystrokes
that the name `~/.emacs.el' requires, but now you may.  The new format
is consistent with the Emacs Lisp file naming conventions; the old
format saves typing.


File: eintr,  Node: Site-wide Init,  Next: defcustom,  Prev: Default Configuration,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.1 Site-wide Initialization Files
===================================

In addition to your personal initialization file, Emacs automatically
loads various site-wide initialization files, if they exist.  These
have the same form as your `.emacs' file, but are loaded by everyone.

   Two site-wide initialization files, `site-load.el' and
`site-init.el', are loaded into Emacs and then `dumped' if a `dumped'
version of Emacs is created, as is most common.  (Dumped copies of
Emacs load more quickly.  However, once a file is loaded and dumped, a
change to it does not lead to a change in Emacs unless you load it
yourself or re-dump Emacs.  *Note Building Emacs: (elisp)Building
Emacs, and the `INSTALL' file.)

   Three other site-wide initialization files are loaded automatically
each time you start Emacs, if they exist.  These are `site-start.el',
which is loaded _before_ your `.emacs' file, and `default.el', and the
terminal type file, which are both loaded _after_ your `.emacs' file.

   Settings and definitions in your `.emacs' file will overwrite
conflicting settings and definitions in a `site-start.el' file, if it
exists; but the settings and definitions in a `default.el' or terminal
type file will overwrite those in your `.emacs' file.  (You can prevent
interference from a terminal type file by setting `term-file-prefix' to
`nil'.  *Note A Simple Extension: Simple Extension.)

   The `INSTALL' file that comes in the distribution contains
descriptions of the `site-init.el' and `site-load.el' files.

   The `loadup.el', `startup.el', and `loaddefs.el' files control
loading.  These files are in the `lisp' directory of the Emacs
distribution and are worth perusing.

   The `loaddefs.el' file contains a good many suggestions as to what
to put into your own `.emacs' file, or into a site-wide initialization
file.


File: eintr,  Node: defcustom,  Next: Beginning a .emacs File,  Prev: Site-wide Init,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.2 Specifying Variables using `defcustom'
===========================================

You can specify variables using `defcustom' so that you and others can
then use Emacs' `customize' feature to set their values.  (You cannot
use `customize' to write function definitions; but you can write
`defuns' in your `.emacs' file.  Indeed, you can write any Lisp
expression in your `.emacs' file.)

   The `customize' feature depends on the `defcustom' special form.
Although you can use `defvar' or `setq' for variables that users set,
the `defcustom' special form is designed for the job.

   You can use your knowledge of `defvar' for writing the first three
arguments for `defcustom'.  The first argument to `defcustom' is the
name of the variable.  The second argument is the variable's initial
value, if any; and this value is set only if the value has not already
been set.  The third argument is the documentation.

   The fourth and subsequent arguments to `defcustom' specify types and
options; these are not featured in `defvar'.  (These arguments are
optional.)

   Each of these arguments consists of a keyword followed by a value.
Each keyword starts with the colon character `:'.

   For example, the customizable user option variable `text-mode-hook'
looks like this:

     (defcustom text-mode-hook nil
       "Normal hook run when entering Text mode and many related modes."
       :type 'hook
       :options '(turn-on-auto-fill flyspell-mode)
       :group 'data)

The name of the variable is `text-mode-hook'; it has no default value;
and its documentation string tells you what it does.

   The `:type' keyword tells Emacs the kind of data to which
`text-mode-hook' should be set and how to display the value in a
Customization buffer.

   The `:options' keyword specifies a suggested list of values for the
variable.  Usually, `:options' applies to a hook.  The list is only a
suggestion; it is not exclusive; a person who sets the variable may set
it to other values; the list shown following the `:options' keyword is
intended to offer convenient choices to a user.

   Finally, the `:group' keyword tells the Emacs Customization command
in which group the variable is located.  This tells where to find it.

   The `defcustom' function recognizes more than a dozen keywords.  For
more information, see *note Writing Customization Definitions:
(elisp)Customization.

   Consider `text-mode-hook' as an example.

   There are two ways to customize this variable.  You can use the
customization command or write the appropriate expressions yourself.

   Using the customization command,  you can type:

     M-x customize

and find that the group for editing files of data is called `data'.
Enter that group.  Text Mode Hook is the first member.  You can click
on its various options, such as `turn-on-auto-fill', to set the values.
After you click on the button to

     Save for Future Sessions

Emacs will write an expression into your `.emacs' file.  It will look
like this:

     (custom-set-variables
       ;; custom-set-variables was added by Custom.
       ;; If you edit it by hand, you could mess it up, so be careful.
       ;; Your init file should contain only one such instance.
       ;; If there is more than one, they won't work right.
      '(text-mode-hook (quote (turn-on-auto-fill text-mode-hook-identify))))

(The `text-mode-hook-identify' function tells
`toggle-text-mode-auto-fill' which buffers are in Text mode.  It comes
on automatically.)

   The `custom-set-variables' function works somewhat differently than
a `setq'.  While I have never learned the differences, I modify the
`custom-set-variables' expressions in my `.emacs' file by hand:  I make
the changes in what appears to me to be a reasonable manner and have
not had any problems.  Others prefer to use the Customization command
and let Emacs do the work for them.

   Another `custom-set-...' function is `custom-set-faces'.  This
function sets the various font faces.  Over time, I have set a
considerable number of faces.  Some of the time, I re-set them using
`customize'; other times, I simply edit the `custom-set-faces'
expression in my `.emacs' file itself.

   The second way to customize your `text-mode-hook' is to set it
yourself in your `.emacs' file using code that has nothing to do with
the `custom-set-...' functions.

   When you do this, and later use `customize', you will see a message
that says

     CHANGED outside Customize; operating on it here may be unreliable.

   This message is only a warning.  If you click on the button to

     Save for Future Sessions

Emacs will write a `custom-set-...' expression near the end of your
`.emacs' file that will be evaluated after your hand-written
expression.  It will, therefore, overrule your hand-written expression.
No harm will be done.  When you do this, however, be careful to
remember which expression is active; if you forget, you may confuse
yourself.

   So long as you remember where the values are set, you will have no
trouble.  In any event, the values are always set in your
initialization file, which is usually called `.emacs'.

   I myself use `customize' for hardly anything.  Mostly, I write
expressions myself.

   Incidentally, to be more complete concerning defines:  `defsubst'
defines an inline function.  The syntax is just like that of `defun'.
`defconst' defines a symbol as a constant.  The intent is that neither
programs nor users should ever change a value set by `defconst'.  (You
can change it; the value set is a variable; but please do not.)


File: eintr,  Node: Beginning a .emacs File,  Next: Text and Auto-fill,  Prev: defcustom,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.3 Beginning a `.emacs' File
==============================

When you start Emacs, it loads your `.emacs' file unless you tell it
not to by specifying `-q' on the command line.  (The `emacs -q' command
gives you a plain, out-of-the-box Emacs.)

   A `.emacs' file contains Lisp expressions.  Often, these are no more
than expressions to set values; sometimes they are function definitions.

   *Note The Init File `~/.emacs': (emacs)Init File, for a short
description of initialization files.

   This chapter goes over some of the same ground, but is a walk among
extracts from a complete, long-used `.emacs' file--my own.

   The first part of the file consists of comments: reminders to myself.
By now, of course, I remember these things, but when I started, I did
not.

     ;;;; Bob's .emacs file
     ; Robert J. Chassell
     ; 26 September 1985

Look at that date!  I started this file a long time ago.  I have been
adding to it ever since.

     ; Each section in this file is introduced by a
     ; line beginning with four semicolons; and each
     ; entry is introduced by a line beginning with
     ; three semicolons.

This describes the usual conventions for comments in Emacs Lisp.
Everything on a line that follows a semicolon is a comment.  Two,
three, and four semicolons are used as subsection and section markers.
(*Note Comments: (elisp)Comments, for more about comments.)

     ;;;; The Help Key
     ; Control-h is the help key;
     ; after typing control-h, type a letter to
     ; indicate the subject about which you want help.
     ; For an explanation of the help facility,
     ; type control-h two times in a row.

Just remember: type `C-h' two times for help.

     ; To find out about any mode, type control-h m
     ; while in that mode.  For example, to find out
     ; about mail mode, enter mail mode and then type
     ; control-h m.

`Mode help', as I call this, is very helpful.  Usually, it tells you
all you need to know.

   Of course, you don't need to include comments like these in your
`.emacs' file.  I included them in mine because I kept forgetting about
Mode help or the conventions for comments--but I was able to remember
to look here to remind myself.


File: eintr,  Node: Text and Auto-fill,  Next: Mail Aliases,  Prev: Beginning a .emacs File,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.4 Text and Auto Fill Mode
============================

Now we come to the part that `turns on' Text mode and Auto Fill mode.

     ;;; Text mode and Auto Fill mode
     ; The next two lines put Emacs into Text mode
     ; and Auto Fill mode, and are for writers who
     ; want to start writing prose rather than code.
     (setq default-major-mode 'text-mode)
     (add-hook 'text-mode-hook 'turn-on-auto-fill)

   Here is the first part of this `.emacs' file that does something
besides remind a forgetful human!

   The first of the two lines in parentheses tells Emacs to turn on Text
mode when you find a file, _unless_ that file should go into some other
mode, such as C mode.

   When Emacs reads a file, it looks at the extension to the file name,
if any.  (The extension is the part that comes after a `.'.)  If the
file ends with a `.c' or `.h' extension then Emacs turns on C mode.
Also, Emacs looks at first nonblank line of the file; if the line says
`-*- C -*-', Emacs turns on C mode.  Emacs possesses a list of
extensions and specifications that it uses automatically.  In addition,
Emacs looks near the last page for a per-buffer, "local variables
list", if any.

   *Note How Major Modes are Chosen: (emacs)Choosing Modes.

   *Note Local Variables in Files: (emacs)File Variables.

   Now, back to the `.emacs' file.

   Here is the line again; how does it work?

     (setq default-major-mode 'text-mode)

This line is a short, but complete Emacs Lisp expression.

   We are already familiar with `setq'.  It sets the following variable,
`default-major-mode', to the subsequent value, which is `text-mode'.
The single quote mark before `text-mode' tells Emacs to deal directly
with the `text-mode' variable, not with whatever it might stand for.
*Note Setting the Value of a Variable: set & setq, for a reminder of
how `setq' works.  The main point is that there is no difference
between the procedure you use to set a value in your `.emacs' file and
the procedure you use anywhere else in Emacs.

   Here is the next line:

     (add-hook 'text-mode-hook 'turn-on-auto-fill)

In this line, the `add-hook' command adds `turn-on-auto-fill' to the
variable.

   `turn-on-auto-fill' is the name of a program, that, you guessed it!,
turns on Auto Fill mode.

   Every time Emacs turns on Text mode, Emacs runs the commands `hooked'
onto Text mode.  So every time Emacs turns on Text mode, Emacs also
turns on Auto Fill mode.

   In brief, the first line causes Emacs to enter Text mode when you
edit a file, unless the file name extension, a first non-blank line, or
local variables to tell Emacs otherwise.

   Text mode among other actions, sets the syntax table to work
conveniently for writers.  In Text mode, Emacs considers an apostrophe
as part of a word like a letter; but Emacs does not consider a period
or a space as part of a word.  Thus, `M-f' moves you over `it's'.  On
the other hand, in C mode, `M-f' stops just after the `t' of `it's'.

   The second line causes Emacs to turn on Auto Fill mode when it turns
on Text mode.  In Auto Fill mode, Emacs automatically breaks a line
that is too wide and brings the excessively wide part of the line down
to the next line.  Emacs breaks lines between words, not within them.

   When Auto Fill mode is turned off, lines continue to the right as you
type them.  Depending on how you set the value of `truncate-lines', the
words you type either disappear off the right side of the screen, or
else are shown, in a rather ugly and unreadable manner, as a
continuation line on the screen.

   In addition, in this part of my `.emacs' file, I tell the Emacs fill
commands to insert two spaces after a colon:

     (setq colon-double-space t)


File: eintr,  Node: Mail Aliases,  Next: Indent Tabs Mode,  Prev: Text and Auto-fill,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.5 Mail Aliases
=================

Here is a `setq' that `turns on' mail aliases, along with more
reminders.

     ;;; Mail mode
     ; To enter mail mode, type `C-x m'
     ; To enter RMAIL (for reading mail),
     ; type `M-x rmail'
     (setq mail-aliases t)

This `setq' command sets the value of the variable `mail-aliases' to
`t'.  Since `t' means true, the line says, in effect, "Yes, use mail
aliases."

   Mail aliases are convenient short names for long email addresses or
for lists of email addresses.  The file where you keep your `aliases'
is `~/.mailrc'.  You write an alias like this:

     alias geo george@foobar.wiz.edu

When you write a message to George, address it to `geo'; the mailer
will automatically expand `geo' to the full address.


File: eintr,  Node: Indent Tabs Mode,  Next: Keybindings,  Prev: Mail Aliases,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.6 Indent Tabs Mode
=====================

By default, Emacs inserts tabs in place of multiple spaces when it
formats a region.  (For example, you might indent many lines of text
all at once with the `indent-region' command.)  Tabs look fine on a
terminal or with ordinary printing, but they produce badly indented
output when you use TeX or Texinfo since TeX ignores tabs.

   The following turns off Indent Tabs mode:

     ;;; Prevent Extraneous Tabs
     (setq-default indent-tabs-mode nil)

   Note that this line uses `setq-default' rather than the `setq'
command that we have seen before.  The `setq-default' command sets
values only in buffers that do not have their own local values for the
variable.

   *Note Tabs vs. Spaces: (emacs)Just Spaces.

   *Note Local Variables in Files: (emacs)File Variables.


File: eintr,  Node: Keybindings,  Next: Keymaps,  Prev: Indent Tabs Mode,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.7 Some Keybindings
=====================

Now for some personal keybindings:

     ;;; Compare windows
     (global-set-key "\C-cw" 'compare-windows)

   `compare-windows' is a nifty command that compares the text in your
current window with text in the next window.  It makes the comparison
by starting at point in each window, moving over text in each window as
far as they match.  I use this command all the time.

   This also shows how to set a key globally, for all modes.

   The command is `global-set-key'.  It is followed by the keybinding.
In a `.emacs' file, the keybinding is written as shown: `\C-c' stands
for `control-c', which means `press the control key and the <c> key at
the same time'.  The `w' means `press the <w> key'.  The keybinding is
surrounded by double quotation marks.  In documentation, you would
write this as `C-c w'.  (If you were binding a <META> key, such as
`M-c', rather than a <CTRL> key, you would write `\M-c' in your
`.emacs' file.  *Note Rebinding Keys in Your Init File: (emacs)Init
Rebinding, for details.)

   The command invoked by the keys is `compare-windows'.  Note that
`compare-windows' is preceded by a single quote; otherwise, Emacs would
first try to evaluate the symbol to determine its value.

   These three things, the double quotation marks, the backslash before
the `C', and the single quote mark are necessary parts of keybinding
that I tend to forget.  Fortunately, I have come to remember that I
should look at my existing `.emacs' file, and adapt what is there.

   As for the keybinding itself: `C-c w'.  This combines the prefix
key, `C-c', with a single character, in this case, `w'.  This set of
keys, `C-c' followed by a single character, is strictly reserved for
individuals' own use.  (I call these `own' keys, since these are for my
own use.)  You should always be able to create such a keybinding for
your own use without stomping on someone else's keybinding.  If you
ever write an extension to Emacs, please avoid taking any of these keys
for public use.  Create a key like `C-c C-w' instead.  Otherwise, we
will run out of `own' keys.

   Here is another keybinding, with a comment:

     ;;; Keybinding for `occur'
     ; I use occur a lot, so let's bind it to a key:
     (global-set-key "\C-co" 'occur)

   The `occur' command shows all the lines in the current buffer that
contain a match for a regular expression.  Matching lines are shown in
a buffer called `*Occur*'.  That buffer serves as a menu to jump to
occurrences.

   Here is how to unbind a key, so it does not work:

     ;;; Unbind `C-x f'
     (global-unset-key "\C-xf")

   There is a reason for this unbinding: I found I inadvertently typed
`C-x f' when I meant to type `C-x C-f'.  Rather than find a file, as I
intended, I accidentally set the width for filled text, almost always
to a width I did not want.  Since I hardly ever reset my default width,
I simply unbound the key.

   The following rebinds an existing key:

     ;;; Rebind `C-x C-b' for `buffer-menu'
     (global-set-key "\C-x\C-b" 'buffer-menu)

   By default, `C-x C-b' runs the `list-buffers' command.  This command
lists your buffers in _another_ window.  Since I almost always want to
do something in that window, I prefer the  `buffer-menu' command, which
not only lists the buffers, but moves point into that window.


File: eintr,  Node: Keymaps,  Next: Loading Files,  Prev: Keybindings,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.8 Keymaps
============

Emacs uses "keymaps" to record which keys call which commands.  When
you use `global-set-key' to set the keybinding for a single command in
all parts of Emacs, you are specifying the keybinding in
`current-global-map'.

   Specific modes, such as C mode or Text mode, have their own keymaps;
the mode-specific keymaps override the global map that is shared by all
buffers.

   The `global-set-key' function binds, or rebinds, the global keymap.
For example, the following binds the key `C-x C-b' to the function
`buffer-menu':

     (global-set-key "\C-x\C-b" 'buffer-menu)

   Mode-specific keymaps are bound using the `define-key' function,
which takes a specific keymap as an argument, as well as the key and
the command.  For example, my `.emacs' file contains the following
expression to bind the `texinfo-insert-@group' command to `C-c C-c g':

     (define-key texinfo-mode-map "\C-c\C-cg" 'texinfo-insert-@group)

The `texinfo-insert-@group' function itself is a little extension to
Texinfo mode that inserts `@group' into a Texinfo file.  I use this
command all the time and prefer to type the three strokes `C-c C-c g'
rather than the six strokes `@ g r o u p'.  (`@group' and its matching
`@end group' are commands that keep all enclosed text together on one
page; many multi-line examples in this book are surrounded by `@group
... @end group'.)

   Here is the `texinfo-insert-@group' function definition:

     (defun texinfo-insert-@group ()
       "Insert the string @group in a Texinfo buffer."
       (interactive)
       (beginning-of-line)
       (insert "@group\n"))

   (Of course, I could have used Abbrev mode to save typing, rather than
write a function to insert a word; but I prefer key strokes consistent
with other Texinfo mode key bindings.)

   You will see numerous `define-key' expressions in `loaddefs.el' as
well as in the various mode libraries, such as `cc-mode.el' and
`lisp-mode.el'.

   *Note Customizing Key Bindings: (emacs)Key Bindings, and *note
Keymaps: (elisp)Keymaps, for more information about keymaps.


File: eintr,  Node: Loading Files,  Next: Autoload,  Prev: Keymaps,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.9 Loading Files
==================

Many people in the GNU Emacs community have written extensions to
Emacs.  As time goes by, these extensions are often included in new
releases.  For example, the Calendar and Diary packages are now part of
the standard GNU Emacs, as is Calc.

   You can use a `load' command to evaluate a complete file and thereby
install all the functions and variables in the file into Emacs.  For
example:

     (load "~/emacs/slowsplit")

   This evaluates, i.e. loads, the `slowsplit.el' file or if it exists,
the faster, byte compiled `slowsplit.elc' file from the `emacs'
sub-directory of your home directory.  The file contains the function
`split-window-quietly', which John Robinson wrote in 1989.

   The `split-window-quietly' function splits a window with the minimum
of redisplay.  I installed it in 1989 because it worked well with the
slow 1200 baud terminals I was then using.  Nowadays, I only
occasionally come across such a slow connection, but I continue to use
the function because I like the way it leaves the bottom half of a
buffer in the lower of the new windows and the top half in the upper
window.

   To replace the key binding for the default
`split-window-vertically', you must also unset that key and bind the
keys to `split-window-quietly', like this:

     (global-unset-key "\C-x2")
     (global-set-key "\C-x2" 'split-window-quietly)

   If you load many extensions, as I do, then instead of specifying the
exact location of the extension file, as shown above, you can specify
that directory as part of Emacs' `load-path'.  Then, when Emacs loads a
file, it will search that directory as well as its default list of
directories.  (The default list is specified in `paths.h' when Emacs is
built.)

   The following command adds your `~/emacs' directory to the existing
load path:

     ;;; Emacs Load Path
     (setq load-path (cons "~/emacs" load-path))

   Incidentally, `load-library' is an interactive interface to the
`load' function.  The complete function looks like this:

     (defun load-library (library)
       "Load the library named LIBRARY.
     This is an interface to the function `load'."
       (interactive
        (list (completing-read "Load library: "
                               'locate-file-completion
                               (cons load-path (get-load-suffixes)))))
       (load library))

   The name of the function, `load-library', comes from the use of
`library' as a conventional synonym for `file'.  The source for the
`load-library' command is in the `files.el' library.

   Another interactive command that does a slightly different job is
`load-file'.  *Note Libraries of Lisp Code for Emacs: (emacs)Lisp
Libraries, for information on the distinction between `load-library'
and this command.


File: eintr,  Node: Autoload,  Next: Simple Extension,  Prev: Loading Files,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.10 Autoloading
=================

Instead of installing a function by loading the file that contains it,
or by evaluating the function definition, you can make the function
available but not actually install it until it is first called.  This
is called "autoloading".

   When you execute an autoloaded function, Emacs automatically
evaluates the file that contains the definition, and then calls the
function.

   Emacs starts quicker with autoloaded functions, since their libraries
are not loaded right away; but you need to wait a moment when you first
use such a function, while its containing file is evaluated.

   Rarely used functions are frequently autoloaded.  The `loaddefs.el'
library contains hundreds of autoloaded functions, from `bookmark-set'
to `wordstar-mode'.  Of course, you may come to use a `rare' function
frequently.  When you do, you should load that function's file with a
`load' expression in your `.emacs' file.

   In my `.emacs' file, I load 14 libraries that contain functions that
would otherwise be autoloaded.  (Actually, it would have been better to
include these files in my `dumped' Emacs, but I forgot.  *Note Building
Emacs: (elisp)Building Emacs, and the `INSTALL' file for more about
dumping.)

   You may also want to include autoloaded expressions in your `.emacs'
file.  `autoload' is a built-in function that takes up to five
arguments, the final three of which are optional.  The first argument
is the name of the function to be autoloaded; the second is the name of
the file to be loaded.  The third argument is documentation for the
function, and the fourth tells whether the function can be called
interactively.  The fifth argument tells what type of
object--`autoload' can handle a keymap or macro as well as a function
(the default is a function).

   Here is a typical example:

     (autoload 'html-helper-mode
       "html-helper-mode" "Edit HTML documents" t)

(`html-helper-mode' is an older alternative to `html-mode', which is a
standard part of the distribution.)

This expression autoloads the `html-helper-mode' function.  It takes it
from the `html-helper-mode.el' file (or from the byte compiled file
`html-helper-mode.elc', if it exists.)  The file must be located in a
directory specified by `load-path'.  The documentation says that this
is a mode to help you edit documents written in the HyperText Markup
Language.  You can call this mode interactively by typing `M-x
html-helper-mode'.  (You need to duplicate the function's regular
documentation in the autoload expression because the regular function
is not yet loaded, so its documentation is not available.)

   *Note Autoload: (elisp)Autoload, for more information.


File: eintr,  Node: Simple Extension,  Next: X11 Colors,  Prev: Autoload,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.11 A Simple Extension: `line-to-top-of-window'
=================================================

Here is a simple extension to Emacs that moves the line point is on to
the top of the window.  I use this all the time, to make text easier to
read.

   You can put the following code into a separate file and then load it
from your `.emacs' file, or you can include it within your `.emacs'
file.

   Here is the definition:

     ;;; Line to top of window;
     ;;; replace three keystroke sequence  C-u 0 C-l
     (defun line-to-top-of-window ()
       "Move the line point is on to top of window."
       (interactive)
       (recenter 0))

   Now for the keybinding.

   Nowadays, function keys as well as mouse button events and non-ASCII
characters are written within square brackets, without quotation marks.
(In Emacs version 18 and before, you had to write different function
key bindings for each different make of terminal.)

   I bind `line-to-top-of-window' to my <F6> function key like this:

     (global-set-key [f6] 'line-to-top-of-window)

   For more information, see *note Rebinding Keys in Your Init File:
(emacs)Init Rebinding.

   If you run two versions of GNU Emacs, such as versions 21 and 22, and
use one `.emacs' file, you can select which code to evaluate with the
following conditional:

     (cond
      (= 21 emacs-major-version)
       ;; evaluate version 21 code
       ( ... ))
      (= 22 emacs-major-version)
       ;; evaluate version 22 code
       ( ... )))

   For example, in contrast to version 20, more recent versions blink
their cursors by default.  I hate such blinking, as well as other
features, so I placed the following in my `.emacs' file(1):

     (when (or (= 21 emacs-major-version)
               (= 22 emacs-major-version))
           (blink-cursor-mode 0)
           ;; Insert newline when you press `C-n' (next-line)
           ;; at the end of the buffer
           (setq next-line-add-newlines t)
           ;; Turn on image viewing
           (auto-image-file-mode t)
           ;; Turn on menu bar (this bar has text)
           ;; (Use numeric argument to turn on)
           (menu-bar-mode 1)
           ;; Turn off tool bar (this bar has icons)
           ;; (Use numeric argument to turn on)
           (tool-bar-mode nil)
           ;; Turn off tooltip mode for tool bar
           ;; (This mode causes icon explanations to pop up)
           ;; (Use numeric argument to turn on)
           (tooltip-mode nil)
           ;; If tooltips turned on, make tips appear promptly
           (setq tooltip-delay 0.1)  ; default is 0.7 second
            )

   Alternatively, since `blink-cursor-mode' has existed since Emacs
version 21 and is likely to continue, you could write

     (when (>= emacs-major-version 21)
       (blink-cursor-mode 0)

and add other expressions, too.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) When I start instances of Emacs that do not load my `.emacs'
file or any site file, I also turn off blinking:

     emacs -q --no-site-file -eval '(blink-cursor-mode nil)'

Or nowadays, using an even more sophisticated set of options,

     emacs -Q - D


File: eintr,  Node: X11 Colors,  Next: Miscellaneous,  Prev: Simple Extension,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.12 X11 Colors
================

You can specify colors when you use Emacs with the MIT X Windowing
system.

   I dislike the default colors and specify my own.

   Here are the expressions in my `.emacs' file that set values:

     ;; Set cursor color
     (set-cursor-color "white")

     ;; Set mouse color
     (set-mouse-color "white")

     ;; Set foreground and background
     (set-foreground-color "white")
     (set-background-color "darkblue")

     ;;; Set highlighting colors for isearch and drag
     (set-face-foreground 'highlight "white")
     (set-face-background 'highlight "blue")

     (set-face-foreground 'region "cyan")
     (set-face-background 'region "blue")

     (set-face-foreground 'secondary-selection "skyblue")
     (set-face-background 'secondary-selection "darkblue")

     ;; Set calendar highlighting colors
     (setq calendar-load-hook
           '(lambda ()
              (set-face-foreground 'diary-face   "skyblue")
              (set-face-background 'holiday-face "slate blue")
              (set-face-foreground 'holiday-face "white")))

   The various shades of blue soothe my eye and prevent me from seeing
the screen flicker.

   Alternatively, I could have set my specifications in various X
initialization files.  For example, I could set the foreground,
background, cursor, and pointer (i.e., mouse) colors in my
`~/.Xresources' file like this:

     Emacs*foreground:   white
     Emacs*background:   darkblue
     Emacs*cursorColor:  white
     Emacs*pointerColor: white

   In any event, since it is not part of Emacs, I set the root color of
my X window in my `~/.xinitrc' file, like this(1):

     xsetroot -solid Navy -fg white &

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) I also run more modern window managers, such as Enlightenment,
Gnome, or KDE; in those cases, I often specify an image rather than a
plain color.


File: eintr,  Node: Miscellaneous,  Next: Mode Line,  Prev: X11 Colors,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.13 Miscellaneous Settings for a `.emacs' File
================================================

Here are a few miscellaneous settings:

   - Set the shape and color of the mouse cursor:

          ; Cursor shapes are defined in
          ; `/usr/include/X11/cursorfont.h';
          ; for example, the `target' cursor is number 128;
          ; the `top_left_arrow' cursor is number 132.

          (let ((mpointer (x-get-resource "*mpointer"
                                          "*emacs*mpointer")))
            ;; If you have not set your mouse pointer
            ;;     then set it, otherwise leave as is:
            (if (eq mpointer nil)
                (setq mpointer "132")) ; top_left_arrow
            (setq x-pointer-shape (string-to-int mpointer))
            (set-mouse-color "white"))

   - Or you can set the values of a variety of features in an alist,
     like this:

          (setq-default
           default-frame-alist
           '((cursor-color . "white")
             (mouse-color . "white")
             (foreground-color . "white")
             (background-color . "DodgerBlue4")
             ;; (cursor-type . bar)
             (cursor-type . box)
             (tool-bar-lines . 0)
             (menu-bar-lines . 1)
             (width . 80)
             (height . 58)
             (font .
                   "-Misc-Fixed-Medium-R-Normal--20-200-75-75-C-100-ISO8859-1")
             ))

   - Convert `<CTRL>-h' into <DEL> and <DEL> into `<CTRL>-h'.
     (Some older keyboards needed this, although I have not seen the
     problem recently.)

          ;; Translate `C-h' to <DEL>.
          ; (keyboard-translate ?\C-h ?\C-?)

          ;; Translate <DEL> to `C-h'.
          (keyboard-translate ?\C-? ?\C-h)

   - Turn off a blinking cursor!

          (if (fboundp 'blink-cursor-mode)
              (blink-cursor-mode -1))

     or start GNU Emacs with the command `emacs -nbc'.

   - When using `grep'
     `-i'     Ignore case distinctions
     `-n'     Prefix each line of output with line number
     `-H'     Print the filename for each match.
     `-e'     Protect patterns beginning with a hyphen character, `-'

          (setq grep-command "grep -i -nH -e ")

   - Find an existing buffer, even if it has a different name
     This avoids problems with symbolic links.

          (setq find-file-existing-other-name t)

   - Set your language environment and default input method

          (set-language-environment "latin-1")
          ;; Remember you can enable or disable multilingual text input
          ;; with the `toggle-input-method'' (C-\) command
          (setq default-input-method "latin-1-prefix")

     If you want to write with Chinese `GB' characters, set this
     instead:

          (set-language-environment "Chinese-GB")
          (setq default-input-method "chinese-tonepy")

Fixing Unpleasant Key Bindings
..............................

Some systems bind keys unpleasantly.  Sometimes, for example, the
<CTRL> key appears in an awkward spot rather than at the far left of
the home row.

   Usually, when people fix these sorts of keybindings, they do not
change their `~/.emacs' file.  Instead, they bind the proper keys on
their consoles with the `loadkeys' or `install-keymap' commands in
their boot script and then include `xmodmap' commands in their
`.xinitrc' or `.Xsession' file for X Windows.

For a boot script:

     loadkeys /usr/share/keymaps/i386/qwerty/emacs2.kmap.gz
or
     install-keymap emacs2

For a `.xinitrc' or `.Xsession' file when the <Caps Lock> key is at the
far left of the home row:

     # Bind the key labeled `Caps Lock' to `Control'
     # (Such a broken user interface suggests that keyboard manufacturers
     # think that computers are typewriters from 1885.)

     xmodmap -e "clear Lock"
     xmodmap -e "add Control = Caps_Lock"

In a `.xinitrc' or `.Xsession' file, to convert an <ALT> key to a
<META> key:

     # Some ill designed keyboards have a key labeled ALT and no Meta
     xmodmap -e "keysym Alt_L = Meta_L Alt_L"


File: eintr,  Node: Mode Line,  Prev: Miscellaneous,  Up: Emacs Initialization

16.14 A Modified Mode Line
==========================

Finally, a feature I really like: a modified mode line.

   When I work over a network, I forget which machine I am using.  Also,
I tend to I lose track of where I am, and which line point is on.

   So I reset my mode line to look like this:

     -:-- foo.texi   rattlesnake:/home/bob/  Line 1  (Texinfo Fill) Top

   I am visiting a file called `foo.texi', on my machine `rattlesnake'
in my `/home/bob' buffer.  I am on line 1, in Texinfo mode, and am at
the top of the buffer.

   My `.emacs' file has a section that looks like this:

     ;; Set a Mode Line that tells me which machine, which directory,
     ;; and which line I am on, plus the other customary information.
     (setq default-mode-line-format
      (quote
       (#("-" 0 1
          (help-echo
           "mouse-1: select window, mouse-2: delete others ..."))
        mode-line-mule-info
        mode-line-modified
        mode-line-frame-identification
        "    "
        mode-line-buffer-identification
        "    "
        (:eval (substring
                (system-name) 0 (string-match "\\..+" (system-name))))
        ":"
        default-directory
        #(" " 0 1
          (help-echo
           "mouse-1: select window, mouse-2: delete others ..."))
        (line-number-mode " Line %l ")
        global-mode-string
        #("   %[(" 0 6
          (help-echo
           "mouse-1: select window, mouse-2: delete others ..."))
        (:eval (mode-line-mode-name))
        mode-line-process
        minor-mode-alist
        #("%n" 0 2 (help-echo "mouse-2: widen" local-map (keymap ...)))
        ")%] "
        (-3 . "%P")
        ;;   "-%-"
        )))

Here, I redefine the default mode line.  Most of the parts are from the
original; but I make a few changes.  I set the _default_ mode line
format so as to permit various modes, such as Info, to override it.

   Many elements in the list are self-explanatory: `mode-line-modified'
is a variable that tells whether the buffer has been modified,
`mode-name' tells the name of the mode, and so on.  However, the format
looks complicated because of two features we have not discussed.

   The first string in the mode line is a dash or hyphen, `-'.  In the
old days, it would have been specified simply as `"-"'.  But nowadays,
Emacs can add properties to a string, such as highlighting or, as in
this case, a help feature.  If you place your mouse cursor over the
hyphen, some help information appears (By default, you must wait
seven-tenths of a second before the information appears.  You can
change that timing by changing the value of `tooltip-delay'.)

   The new string format has a special syntax:

     #("-" 0 1 (help-echo "mouse-1: select window, ..."))

The `#(' begins a list.  The first element of the list is the string
itself, just one `-'.  The second and third elements specify the range
over which the fourth element applies.  A range starts _after_ a
character, so a zero means the range starts just before the first
character; a 1 means that the range ends just after the first
character.  The third element is the property for the range.  It
consists of a property list,  a property name, in this case,
`help-echo', followed by a value, in this case, a string.  The second,
third, and fourth elements of this new string format can be repeated.

   *Note Text Properties: (elisp)Text Properties, and see *note Mode
Line Format: (elisp)Mode Line Format, for more information.

   `mode-line-buffer-identification' displays the current buffer name.
It is a list beginning `(#("%12b" 0 4 ...'.  The `#(' begins the list.

   The `"%12b"' displays the current buffer name, using the
`buffer-name' function with which we are familiar; the `12' specifies
the maximum number of characters that will be displayed.  When a name
has fewer characters, whitespace is added to fill out to this number.
(Buffer names can and often should be longer than 12 characters; this
length works well in a typical 80 column wide window.)

   `:eval' says to evaluate the following form and use the result as a
string to display.  In this case, the expression displays the first
component of the full system name.  The end of the first component is a
`.' (`period'), so I use the `string-match' function to tell me the
length of the first component.  The substring from the zeroth character
to that length is the name of the machine.

   This is the expression:

     (:eval (substring
             (system-name) 0 (string-match "\\..+" (system-name))))

   `%[' and `%]' cause a pair of square brackets to appear for each
recursive editing level.  `%n' says `Narrow' when narrowing is in
effect.  `%P' tells you the percentage of the buffer that is above the
bottom of the window, or `Top', `Bottom', or `All'.  (A lower case `p'
tell you the percentage above the _top_ of the window.)  `%-' inserts
enough dashes to fill out the line.

   Remember, "You don't have to like Emacs to like it" -- your own
Emacs can have different colors, different commands, and different keys
than a default Emacs.

   On the other hand, if you want to bring up a plain `out of the box'
Emacs, with no customization, type:

     emacs -q

This will start an Emacs that does _not_ load your `~/.emacs'
initialization file.  A plain, default Emacs.  Nothing more.


File: eintr,  Node: Debugging,  Next: Conclusion,  Prev: Emacs Initialization,  Up: Top

17 Debugging
************

GNU Emacs has two debuggers, `debug' and `edebug'.  The first is built
into the internals of Emacs and is always with you; the second requires
that you instrument a function before you can use it.

   Both debuggers are described extensively in *note Debugging Lisp
Programs: (elisp)Debugging.  In this chapter, I will walk through a
short example of each.

* Menu:

* debug::                       How to use the built-in debugger.
* debug-on-entry::              Start debugging when you call a function.
* debug-on-quit::               Start debugging when you quit with C-g.
* edebug::                      How to use Edebug, a source level debugger.
* Debugging Exercises::


File: eintr,  Node: debug,  Next: debug-on-entry,  Prev: Debugging,  Up: Debugging

17.1 `debug'
============

Suppose you have written a function definition that is intended to
return the sum of the numbers 1 through a given number.  (This is the
`triangle' function discussed earlier.  *Note Example with Decrementing
Counter: Decrementing Example, for a discussion.)

   However, your function definition has a bug.  You have mistyped `1='
for `1-'.  Here is the broken definition:

     (defun triangle-bugged (number)
       "Return sum of numbers 1 through NUMBER inclusive."
       (let ((total 0))
         (while (> number 0)
           (setq total (+ total number))
           (setq number (1= number)))      ; Error here.
         total))

   If you are reading this in Info, you can evaluate this definition in
the normal fashion.  You will see `triangle-bugged' appear in the echo
area.

   Now evaluate the `triangle-bugged' function with an argument of 4:

     (triangle-bugged 4)

In a recent GNU Emacs, you will create and enter a `*Backtrace*' buffer
that says:


     ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------
     Debugger entered--Lisp error: (void-function 1=)
       (1= number)
       (setq number (1= number))
       (while (> number 0) (setq total (+ total number))
             (setq number (1= number)))
       (let ((total 0)) (while (> number 0) (setq total ...)
         (setq number ...)) total)
       triangle-bugged(4)
       eval((triangle-bugged 4))
       eval-last-sexp-1(nil)
       eval-last-sexp(nil)
       call-interactively(eval-last-sexp)
     ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------

(I have reformatted this example slightly; the debugger does not fold
long lines.  As usual, you can quit the debugger by typing `q' in the
`*Backtrace*' buffer.)

   In practice, for a bug as simple as this, the `Lisp error' line will
tell you what you need to know to correct the definition.  The function
`1=' is `void'.

   However, suppose you are not quite certain what is going on?  You
can read the complete backtrace.

   In this case, you need to run a recent GNU Emacs, which automatically
starts the debugger that puts you in the `*Backtrace*' buffer; or else,
you need to start the debugger manually as described below.

   Read the `*Backtrace*' buffer from the bottom up; it tells you what
Emacs did that led to the error.  Emacs made an interactive call to
`C-x C-e' (`eval-last-sexp'), which led to the evaluation of the
`triangle-bugged' expression.  Each line above tells you what the Lisp
interpreter evaluated next.

   The third line from the top of the buffer is

     (setq number (1= number))

Emacs tried to evaluate this expression; in order to do so, it tried to
evaluate the inner expression shown on the second line from the top:

     (1= number)

This is where the error occurred; as the top line says:

     Debugger entered--Lisp error: (void-function 1=)

You can correct the mistake, re-evaluate the function definition, and
then run your test again.


File: eintr,  Node: debug-on-entry,  Next: debug-on-quit,  Prev: debug,  Up: Debugging

17.2 `debug-on-entry'
=====================

A recent GNU Emacs starts the debugger automatically when your function
has an error.

   Incidentally, you can start the debugger manually for all versions of
Emacs; the advantage is that the debugger runs even if you do not have
a bug in your code.  Sometimes your code will be free of bugs!

   You can enter the debugger when you call the function by calling
`debug-on-entry'.

Type:

     M-x debug-on-entry RET triangle-bugged RET

Now, evaluate the following:

     (triangle-bugged 5)

All versions of Emacs will create a `*Backtrace*' buffer and tell you
that it is beginning to evaluate the `triangle-bugged' function:

     ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------
     Debugger entered--entering a function:
     * triangle-bugged(5)
       eval((triangle-bugged 5))
       eval-last-sexp-1(nil)
       eval-last-sexp(nil)
       call-interactively(eval-last-sexp)
     ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------

   In the `*Backtrace*' buffer, type `d'.  Emacs will evaluate the
first expression in `triangle-bugged'; the buffer will look like this:

     ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------
     Debugger entered--beginning evaluation of function call form:
     * (let ((total 0)) (while (> number 0) (setq total ...)
             (setq number ...)) total)
     * triangle-bugged(5)
       eval((triangle-bugged 5))
       eval-last-sexp-1(nil)
       eval-last-sexp(nil)
       call-interactively(eval-last-sexp)
     ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------

Now, type `d' again, eight times, slowly.  Each time you type `d',
Emacs will evaluate another expression in the function definition.

   Eventually, the buffer will look like this:

     ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------
     Debugger entered--beginning evaluation of function call form:
     * (setq number (1= number))
     * (while (> number 0) (setq total (+ total number))
             (setq number (1= number)))
     * (let ((total 0)) (while (> number 0) (setq total ...)
             (setq number ...)) total)
     * triangle-bugged(5)
       eval((triangle-bugged 5))
       eval-last-sexp-1(nil)
       eval-last-sexp(nil)
       call-interactively(eval-last-sexp)
     ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------

Finally, after you type `d' two more times, Emacs will reach the error,
and the top two lines of the `*Backtrace*' buffer will look like this:

     ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------
     Debugger entered--Lisp error: (void-function 1=)
     * (1= number)
     ...
     ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------

   By typing `d', you were able to step through the function.

   You can quit a `*Backtrace*' buffer by typing `q' in it; this quits
the trace, but does not cancel `debug-on-entry'.

   To cancel the effect of `debug-on-entry', call
`cancel-debug-on-entry' and the name of the function, like this:

     M-x cancel-debug-on-entry RET triangle-bugged RET

(If you are reading this in Info, cancel `debug-on-entry' now.)


File: eintr,  Node: debug-on-quit,  Next: edebug,  Prev: debug-on-entry,  Up: Debugging

17.3 `debug-on-quit' and `(debug)'
==================================

In addition to setting `debug-on-error' or calling `debug-on-entry',
there are two other ways to start `debug'.

   You can start `debug' whenever you type `C-g' (`keyboard-quit') by
setting the variable `debug-on-quit' to `t'.  This is useful for
debugging infinite loops.

   Or, you can insert a line that says `(debug)' into your code where
you want the debugger to start, like this:

     (defun triangle-bugged (number)
       "Return sum of numbers 1 through NUMBER inclusive."
       (let ((total 0))
         (while (> number 0)
           (setq total (+ total number))
           (debug)                         ; Start debugger.
           (setq number (1= number)))      ; Error here.
         total))

   The `debug' function is described in detail in *note The Lisp
Debugger: (elisp)Debugger.


File: eintr,  Node: edebug,  Next: Debugging Exercises,  Prev: debug-on-quit,  Up: Debugging

17.4 The `edebug' Source Level Debugger
=======================================

Edebug is a source level debugger.  Edebug normally displays the source
of the code you are debugging, with an arrow at the left that shows
which line you are currently executing.

   You can walk through the execution of a function, line by line, or
run quickly until reaching a "breakpoint" where execution stops.

   Edebug is described in *note Edebug: (elisp)edebug.

   Here is a bugged function definition for `triangle-recursively'.
*Note Recursion in place of a counter: Recursive triangle function, for
a review of it.

     (defun triangle-recursively-bugged (number)
       "Return sum of numbers 1 through NUMBER inclusive.
     Uses recursion."
       (if (= number 1)
           1
         (+ number
            (triangle-recursively-bugged
             (1= number)))))               ; Error here.

Normally, you would install this definition by positioning your cursor
after the function's closing parenthesis and typing `C-x C-e'
(`eval-last-sexp') or else by positioning your cursor within the
definition and typing `C-M-x' (`eval-defun').  (By default, the
`eval-defun' command works only in Emacs Lisp mode or in Lisp
Interactive mode.)

   However, to prepare this function definition for Edebug, you must
first "instrument" the code using a different command.  You can do this
by positioning your cursor within or just after the definition and
typing

     M-x edebug-defun RET

This will cause Emacs to load Edebug automatically if it is not already
loaded, and properly instrument the function.

   After instrumenting the function, place your cursor after the
following expression and type `C-x C-e' (`eval-last-sexp'):

     (triangle-recursively-bugged 3)

You will be jumped back to the source for `triangle-recursively-bugged'
and the cursor positioned at the beginning of the `if' line of the
function.  Also, you will see an arrowhead at the left hand side of
that line.  The arrowhead marks the line where the function is
executing.  (In the following examples, we show the arrowhead with
`=>'; in a windowing system, you may see the arrowhead as a solid
triangle in the window `fringe'.)

     =>-!-(if (= number 1)

In the example, the location of point is displayed as `-!-' (in a
printed book, it is displayed with a five pointed star).

   If you now press <SPC>, point will move to the next expression to be
executed; the line will look like this:

     =>(if -!-(= number 1)

As you continue to press <SPC>, point will move from expression to
expression.  At the same time, whenever an expression returns a value,
that value will be displayed in the echo area.  For example, after you
move point past `number', you will see the following:

     Result: 3 (#o3, #x3, ?\C-c)

This means the value of `number' is 3, which is octal three,
hexadecimal three, and ASCII `control-c' (the third letter of the
alphabet, in case you need to know this information).

   You can continue moving through the code until you reach the line
with the error.  Before evaluation, that line looks like this:

     =>        -!-(1= number)))))               ; Error here.

When you press <SPC> once again, you will produce an error message that
says:

     Symbol's function definition is void: 1=

This is the bug.

   Press `q' to quit Edebug.

   To remove instrumentation from a function definition, simply
re-evaluate it with a command that does not instrument it.  For
example, you could place your cursor after the definition's closing
parenthesis and type `C-x C-e'.

   Edebug does a great deal more than walk with you through a function.
You can set it so it races through on its own, stopping only at an
error or at specified stopping points; you can cause it to display the
changing values of various expressions; you can find out how many times
a function is called, and more.

   Edebug is described in *note Edebug: (elisp)edebug.

